THE 
SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION 


SCRIVEN 


GIFT   OF 


CIRCULAR  NO.  8 
OFFICE  OF  THE  CHIEF  SIGNAL  OFFICER,  1915 


THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION 

UNITED  STATES  ARMY 


A  REVIEW  OF  THE  NATURE,  USE,  FIELD  OF  SERVICE,  AND 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  OF  THE  ARMY,  WITH 

AN  OUTLINE  OF  ITS  METHODS,  AND  TECHNICAL  APPARATUS 

AND  NOTES  ON  THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION  AND  THE 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  AVIATION  SERVICE  OF 

THE  LEADING  FOREIGN  ARMIES 


By 

BRIG.  GEN.  GEORGE  P.  SCRIVEN 

CHIEF  SIGNAL  OFFICER  OF  THE  ARMY 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1915 


PREFACE. 


It  has  long  been  the  belief  of  the  writer  of  these  notes  that  the 
functions  of  certain  branches  of  the  service  auxiliary  to  the  line  in  the 
United  States  army  are  not  in  general  well  understood  even  by  people 
who  are  interested  in  military  affairs.  The  reasons  for  this  are,  no 
doubt,  in  part  due  to  the  fact  that  the  functions  of  these  auxiliaries 
are  many  and  varied,  and  are  not  outlined  in  available  form  or  even 
clearly  defined  except  in  the  brief  and  general  statements  of  laws, 
regulations,  or  orders  affecting  the  service.  This  lack  of  knowledge 
seems  to  be  especially  true  of  the  corps  with  which  the  writer  has  long 
had  the  honor  to  serve,  the  name  of  which  gives  no  indication  what- 
ever of  its  functions,  scope,  and  value  to  the  army.  It  is  thought, 
therefore,  that  an  outline  of  the  duties  and  field  of  usefulness  of  the 
signal  corps  of  the  army  may  be  of  value  to  those  interested  in  mili- 
tary affairs,  to  others  upon  whom  the  army  must  depend  for  its  main- 
tenance, and  to  officers  and  men  of  the  national  guard  who  will  be 
called  upon  to  perform  the  duties  of  signalmen.  To  instructors  and 
students  at  military  schools,  to  officers  of  the  regular  army  who  may 
be  called  by  detail  or  by  accident  of  service  to  construct  and  main- 
tain lines  of  information,  and  to  the  great  mass  of  the  volunteers  if 
called  to  the  defense  of  the  country,  these  notes  may  also  be  of  interest 
and  use.  For  these  reasons  they  have  been  prepared. 

The  writer  begs  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  Lieut.  Col. 
Samuel  Reber,  Maj.  Edgar  Russel,  Capts.  Charles  S.  Wallace,  George 
S.  Gibbs,  and  G.  Soulard  Turner,  of  the  signal  corps,  and  Mr.  Wil- 
liam M.  Reading,  of  the  signal  office,  for  their  assistance  in  the 
preparation  of  these  notes. 

GEORGE  P.  SCRIVEN. 
3 


SYNOPSIS. 


1.  The  Signal  Corps  as  an  Auxiliary  Branch  of  the  Army. 

2.  The  Service  of  Air  Craft. 

3.  Functions  of  the  Signal  Corps  and  its  Relation  to  the  Line  of  the  Army. 

4.  Field  Lines  of  Information. 

5.  The  Signal  Corps  in  War. 

6.  Present  Organization  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

The  Signal  Corps  at  Large. 

The  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

7.  Desired  Organization  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

The  Signal  Corps  at  Large. 

The  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

8.  The  Signal  Corps  and  General  Coast  Defense. 

Fortified  Positions. 

The  Mobile  Army  of  Coast  Defense. 

Supports. 

Service  of  Air  Craft  in  Coast  Defense. 

The  Signal  Corps  and  the  Coast  Patrol  or  Coast  Guard. 

Information  in  War. 

Association  of  the  Signal  Corps  with  the  Coast  Patrol  or  Coast  Guard. 

Coast  Defense  Lines  of  Information. 

9.  A  Brief  History  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

The  Signal  Corps  at  Large. 

The  Aviation  Section  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

10.  Technical  Apparatus  of  the  Signal  Corps. 

11.  Opportunities  for  Vocational  Training  Offered  by  the  Signal  Corps. 

12.  Notes  on  the  Service  of  Information  in  the  Armies  of  Foreign  Nations. 

The  Organization  of  Telegraph  Troops. 
The  Organization  of  Aviation  Troops. 

5 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  AS  AN  AUXILIARY 
BRANCH  OF  THE  ARMY. 


THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION. 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  AS  AN  AUXILIARY  BRANCH  OF  THE  ARMY. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  in  this  country  that  a  soldier 
is  a  fighting  man  whose  services  are  due  to  the  state ;  that  there  exist 
in  the  regular  army  soldiers  of  infantry  who  march  and  fight  on 
foot ;  cavalry  troopers  who  ride  a  horse ;  and  artillerymen  who  serve 
the  guns.  It  may  even  be  known  that  engineer  troops  exist  who 
belong  to  the  line  and  perform  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  soldier  in 
addition  to  their  special  service  as  engineers. 

But  how  few  people  realize,  even  if  they  know,  that  attached  to 
all  armies  there  must  be,  in  addition  to  the  men  whose  first  duty  is 
to  fight,  other  bodies  of  troops  whose  services  are  absolutely  needed 
for  the  proper  conduct  of  military  affairs;  soldiers  who  while  they 
are  combattant  troops  are  charged  primarily  with  duties  technical 
in  character  and  requiring  special  training  and  organization.  That 
in  fact  in  every  properly  organized  army  there  exist,  in  addition  to 
the  men  who  carry  a  rifle  or  a  saber  or  who  man  the  guns,  certain 
auxiliary  and  special  troops  upon  whom  the  success  of  campaigns 
depend,  and  by  whose  services  alone  can  the  general  in  command 
hope  to  intelligently  meet  his  enemy  and  oppose  him  with  an  ade- 
quate force  properly  supplied  with  food,  ammunition,  and  the  thou- 
sand needs  of  an  army. 

These"  troops  are  not  as  essential  to  success  when  the  shock  of  con- 
tact comes  as  are  the  guns  and  sabers  of  the  fighting  line,  never- 
theless they  are  indispensable  to  every  armed  force  and  without  their 
aid  no  mobility  can  exist,  no  battle  be  engaged,  no  knowledge  of  con- 
ditions be  obtained.  An  army  fights  with  its  guns,  therefore  it 
must  have  powder ;  it  fights  on  its  belly  and  the  belly  must  be  fed ; 
in  these  days,  too,  it  fights  with  its  brain  and  the  brain  must  be  in- 
formed. In  the  United  States  army  this  last  function — that  is,  the 

9 


10  TEM  SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 


service  of  military  information  —  is  placed  in  charge  of  one  corps, 
the  Signal  Corps  of  the  army.  The  service  thus  concentrated  and 
not  scattered  among  several  branches  of  the  army  varying  in  in- 
telligence, instruction,  and  experience,  as  is  the  case  generally  abroad, 
is  believed  to  have  an  advantage  in  consolidation  that  has  not  only 
been  proved,  but  that  is  increasing  with  the  steady  advances  in  the 
science  of  war. 

Few  people,  however,  know  the  character  of  this  corps,  fewer  still 
the  service  it  performs,  the  scope  of  its  duties  or  the  reasons  for  its 
existence;  the  name  but  vaguely  indicates  the  nature  of  its  work. 
Since  the  creation  of  a  signal  corps  in  the  early  days  of  the  civil 
war,  its  then  simple  functions  have  taken  on  great  increase  in  scope 
and  variety  and  its  usefulness  has  been  enormously  enlarged  until 
it  is  now  evident  that  the  importance  of  this  service  in  military 
affairs,  its  necessity  in  the  control  of  armies  in  the  field,  and  its 
paramount  value  in  the  conduct  of  war  have  been  proven  beyond  a 
doubt.  Indeed,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that  the  great  exten- 
sion of  fighting  lines,  the  destructive  power  of  enormous  engines  of 
war,  and  the  control  of  the  master  mind  seen  in  the  present  war  of 
the  nations  of  Europe,  and  indicated  in  the  earlier  struggle  in  Asia, 
are  made  possible  not  only  by  the  advance  in  mechanical  arts  but 
by  the  harnessing  of  electricity  and  by  modern  methods  of  trans- 
mitting intelligence,  which  we  call  the  transmission  of  military  in- 
formation. It  is  true,  however,  that  all  this  is  merely  a  growth, 
and  though  the  need  of  information  to  the  fighting  man  is  more 
urgent  now  than  in  the  earlier  days  as  the  size  and  power  of  armies 
increase  and  the  control  of  the  master  mind  grows  more  imperative, 
the  fundamentals  have  not  changed  since  man  became  a  .thinking 
animal.  The  first  need  of  a  commander,  now  as  then,  is  a  knowledge 
of  events  as  they  occur,  and  of  conditions  as  they  exist.  To  trans- 
mit this  knowledge,  no  matter  how  obtained,  is  in  brief  the  primary 
function  of  the  signal  corps. 

Within  the  past  few  months  it  has  been  shown  by  events  abroad 
that  the  service  of  the  lines  of  information  has  become  a  major  factor 
in  the  conduct  of  military  affairs,  if  it  is  not  now,  indeed,  the  para- 
mount element  in  the  control  of  modern  wars.  Without  information 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  11 

and  knowledge  of  events  and  conditions  as  they  arise,  all  else  must 
fail. 

It  is  probably  true,  as  has  been  said,  that  the  art  of  war  has  not 
changed  with  the  passage  of  years,  but  it  is  true  that  the  science  of 
Avar  has  changed  enormously  since  the  days  of  muzzle-loading  guns, 
captive  balloons  and  messenger  service.  To  this  change  perhaps  no 
elements  have  contributed  more  effectually  than  electricity  and  air 
navigation  which  are  the  two  functions  that  permit  the  rapid  dissemi- 
nation of  information  regarding  events  as  they  occur,  and  have 
replaced  the  slow  groping  in  the  dark  of  contending  forces  of  former 
years.  With  the  use  of  these  elements  the  signal  corps  is  charged,  and 
as  a  corps  it  may  be  said  to  exist  for  one  main  purpose :  THE  SPEEDY 

DISSEMINATION  OF  MILITARY  INTELLIGENCE  OR  INFORMATION.      TrUC,  it 

has  other  duties;  but  that  given,  the  exchange  of  ideas  in  military 
affairs  is  the  real  reason  for  its  existence.  It  is  the  nerve  system  of 
the  army  by  which  information  is  transmitted  to  the  brain. 

The  collection  of  military  information,  also  a  function  of  the  corps, 
though  important,  is  secondary,  since  it  is  a  duty  shared  by  many 
persons  in  and  out  of  the  military  service  and  does  not  belong  to  the 
signal  corps  alone. 

In  peace  the  signal  corps  is  concerned  with  the  management  of 
military  affairs;  in  war,  with  the  control  of  troops  and  the  conduct 
of  campaigns.  Undoubtedly  in  peace  others  duties  are  assigned  to 
it,  but  these  are  merely  superimposed  upon  the  real  work  and  can 
be  equally  well  performed  by  nonmilitary  agencies  and  do  not  affect 
the  real  functions  of  the  corps. 

From  what  has  been  said,  therefore,  it  seems  clear,  at  least  to  the 
writer,  that  an  outline  of  the  field  of  wrork  of  the  signal  corps  of  the 
army,  both  in  peace  and  war — that  is,  some  description  of  the  value 
and  conduct  of  the  service  of  information,  its  scope  and  importance 
to  the  army,  and  its  uses  to  the  line — is  needed  at  this  epoch  of 
constructive  legislation  and  military  uncertainty.  Little  has  been 
presented  on  the  subject,  and  it  is  certain  that  few  laymen  and  not  all 
soldiers  can  know  or  be  expected  to  appreciate  fully  the  value  of  the 
service  that  is  now  performed  by  this  branch  of  the  army. 


12  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

TRANSMISSION  OF  MILITARY  INFORMATION  IN  GENERAL. 

Many  as  have  been  the  changes  that  applied  science  has  effected  in 
civilized  life  during  the  past  hundred  years,  no  single  one  has  been 
more  revolutionary,  perhaps,  than  that  which  has  taken  place  in  the 
transmission  of  human  thought.  A  century  ago  the  great  semaphore 
system  of  France  marked  probably  the  farthest  advance  in  the  world's 
telegraphy,  whereas  to-day  we  put  a  girdle  of  thought  around  the 
earth  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye ;  our  uttered  words  pass  beyond  the 
range  of  sight  or  sound  and  reach  beyond  the  limit  of  years.  Space 
and  time  have  in  this  sense  been  annihilated. 

That  the  change  has  been  due  to  electricity  is  known  to  us  all;  yet 
who  stops  to  realize  as  he  sends  his  voice  over  a  distance  of  thousands 
of  miles  or  receives  in  his  comfortable  office  a  message  from  some 
troubled  ship  at  sea,  or  at  a  national  capital  reads  the  incidents  of  a 
battle  almost  as  they  occur  on  a  foreign  field,  or,  indeed,  hears  uttered 
words  or  the  sound  of  a  voice  long  since  passed  away,  that  at  a  time 
within  the  memory  of  living  men  these  things  were  not  only  regarded 
as  impossible  but  were  undreamed  of.  Indeed,  until  the  first  message 
of  the  Morse  telegraph  passed  from  Washington  to  Baltimore 
thought  was  conveyed  much  as  it  had  been  between  men  since  the 
dawn  of  history.  That  the  influence  of  this  change  has  been  as 
extended  in  war  as  it  has  in  peace  is  perhaps  too  much  to  say,  since 
peace  is  long  construction,  war  speedy  destruction;  but  that  the 
value  of  the  change  is  the  greater  in  war  is  as  sure  as  that  the  need 
is  greater.  If  proof  of  this  value  is  necessary,  we  have  only  to 
recall  Shafter's  communication  at  a  critical  moment  with  the  White 
House  from  the  field  at  Santiago,  which  the  signal  corps  had  placed 
by  cable  within  five  minutes  of  Washington,  or,  more  recently,  the 
events  abroad,  of  which  we  have  but  a  glimmer  of  knowledge,  but 
yet  sufficient  evidence  to  show  the  vital,  almost  transcendent, 
importance  in  war  of  the  transmission  of  information,  so  signally 
illustrated  in  many  actions,  especially  that  at  Nueve  Chappelle. 

But  in  war,  as  in  peace,  changed  methods  of  intelligence  com- 
munication— with  all  that  this  implies — have  been  due  to  many 
agencies ;  chemistry  and  the  mechanical  arts  have,  of  themselves,  done 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  13 

their  share  in  improvement  and  given  us  air  craft  in  its  varying  forms, 
the  searchlight,  the  heliograph,  the  acetylene  light,  pyrotechnics,  and 
many  other  useful  devices.  But  other  agencies  have  played  their 
part,  and  the  fighting  world  no  longer  moves  only  on  the  surface  of 
land  and  water.  Indeed,  advances  in  the  arts  of  peace  have  vastly 
increased  fighting  power  in  war',  and  the  application  of  science  to 
the  usual  business  of  life,  while  it  has  multiplied  the  comforts  of 
man  and  perhaps  increased  his  welfare,  has  also  enormously  aug- 
mented his  killing  powers.  At  no  period  of  the  world's  history  has 
this  truth  been  better  illustrated  than  in  the  tremendous  application 
of  science  to  war  made  by  the  fighting  nations  of  Europe. 

If  we  consider  for  a  moment  the  value  of  this  application  to  the 
transmission  of  military  information,  shown  in  the  use  of  the  tele- 
graph and  telephone  to-day  in  Europe  and  long  ago  by  our  own  army 
in  Cuba,  the  Philippines,  and  in  China,  and  note  the  importance  of 
the  radio,  to  say  nothing  of  the  surpassing  influence  of  the  aeroplane 
and  the  many  applications  of  science  to  the  service  of  war,  it  should 
seem  unnecessary  to  dwell  here  upon  the  military  value  of  these 
aids  to  war.  However,  there  are  still  people  of  intelligence  who  in 
practice  think  that  the  transmission  of  military  thought  is  summed 
up  in  the  use  of  notebook,  the  orderly,  and  his  horse.  But  these  are 
passing,  and  the  trained  soldier  and  educated  volunteer  understand 
the  vital  importance  of  time  in  military  operations  and  the  need  for 
the  immediate  transmission  of  information.  Hence,  the  necessity  for 
a  signal  corps  or  its  equivalent;  for  without  its  aid  modern  armies 
can  no  more  be  controlled  than  can  great  railway  systems;  the 
commander  in  the  field  remains  blind  and  deaf  to  the  events  occur- 
ring around  him,  incapable  of  maintaining  touch  with  conditions, 
and  out  of  reach  of  his  superiors  or  those  under  his  authority, 
upon  whom  he  depends  for  the  execution  of  his  plans.  The  brain 
lacks  the  power  to  control  because  the  nerves  are  wanting.  Time  is 
the  main  factor  in  war;  to  arrive  first  with  the  greatest  number  of 
men,  and  with  the  clearest  understanding  of  the  situation,  is  to  suc- 
ceed. The  last,  and  often  the  first,  of  these  conditions  depends  upon 
the  lines  of  information  of  the  army. 


14  THE   SEE  VICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

Lines  of  information  are  no  longer  theoretical.  Of  them  Maj. 
Gen.  Greely,  a  well-known  authority  on  the  subject  remarks: 

Their  practical  operation  is  the  story  of  the  field  duties  of  the  American 
Signal  Corps  in  China,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippines.  Its  work  placed  the 
White  House  within  five  minutes  of  the  south  coast  of  Cuba.  It  first  located 
Cervera's  fleet,  and  first  announced  its  destruction.  At  Santiago  it  stretched 
telephone  wires  along  Shafter's  front  from  San  Juan  Hill  to  Aguadores.  In 
Porto  Rico  it  opened  up  cables;  and  with  the  telephones  and  sounders  of  its 
electric  lines,  keeping  pace  with  every  division,  were  in  the  forefront  under  fire. 
In  China  it  followed  Chaffee's  columns,  and,  entering  Peking  on  the  heels  of  his 
victorious  troops,  alone  kept  the  world  in  touch  with  the  imperial  city  for  a 
week.  It  repaired  Dewey's  cable  at  Cavite,  and  directed  the  fire  of  the  Monad- 
nock  at  La  Loina.  In  the  Philippines  its  10,000  miles  of  constructed  and  main- 
tained telegraph  lines  and  cables  connected  all  tactical  points  throughout  the 
archipelago,  whether  in  the  field  or  camp,  under  fire  or  in  quiet  intervals;  not 
only  did  its  coinpaign  work  shorten  the  insurrection,  but  also  its  existence 
later  rendered  possible  great  reduction  of  forces  without  endangering  peace, 
more  than  once  saving  a  garrison. 

It  is  perhaps  not  too  much  to  claim  that  the  energy  and  resourcefulness  of  the 
American  Army  initiated  a  new  epoch  in  lines  of  information,  when  in  the 
War  with  Spain  it  applied  electricity  to  military  uses  on  a  scale  and  with  a 
success  hitherto  unpredecented. 

Half  a  century  ago  rapidity  of  transmission  of  information  in 
campaigns  was  in  general  measured  by  the  speed  of  the  couriers ;  dis- 
tant movements  were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves  or  neglected, 
since,  if  discovered,  they  could  only  be  reported  after  the  event; 
immediate  operations  were  limited;  the  chessboard  was  small.  Now 
all  this  is  changed,  and  if  everything  concerned  in  war  and  with  the 
efficiency  of  armies  should  be  of  the  best,  certain  it  is  that  the  nerves 
extending  from  the  controlling  brain  to  the  striking  arm — that  is, 
the  lines  of  thought  transmission — should  be  the  most  perfect,  the 
most  rapid,  and  the  most  certain  that  science  can  give.  Only  the  best 
should  find  a  place.  Air  service,  the  radio,  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
visual  signaling  apparatus,  all  must  be  supreme  of  their  kind  lest  a 
club  be  placed  in  the  enemy's  hands,  to  our  own  destruction.  This 
is  a  truth  that  every  soldier  knows  in  general,  but  it  seems  worth 
while  to  repeat  that  if  a  commander's  service  of  information  is  better 
than  that  of  his  adversary  he  possesses  wider  knowledge  and  superior 
control;  he  selects  with  certainty  his  objective  and  arrives  at  it  first; 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  15 

he  perceives  weakness  before  his  own  is  discovered  or  strength  before 
his  weakness  is  known;  he  anticipates  movements,  alters  disposi- 
tions, executes  plans  unknown  to  his  enemy;  in  short,  the  successful 
soldier  commands  the  situation  by  force  of  superior  knowledge,  and 
never  is  it  more  true  than  in  war  that  knowledge  is  power.  But  the 
kind  of  knowledge  commended  by  the  adage  is  not  merely  that  ac- 
quired by  stress  of  effort,  but  should  embrace  that  knowledge  which 
comes  from  information  regarding  passing  conditions,  which  alters 
with  them  and  changes  from  moment  to  moment  as  the  shadows 
change.  It  is  the  comprehension  upon  which  successful  action  de- 
pends and  without  which  few  of  the  undertakings  of  war  can  be 
brought  to  a  successful  conclusion.  The  means  of  securing  this 
knowledge  of  events  as  they  occur  and  conditions  as  they  exist  are 
vital  in  warfare.  The  commander  inferior  to  his  enemy  in  the  char- 
acter and  service  of  his  intelligence  communication  is  like  a  blind 
man  fighting  him  who  can  see.  It  follows  that  his  information  service 
must  be  of  the  best,  and  also  that  he  must  be  able  to  use  it  to  the  fullest 
extent.  Two  great  means  to  this  end  have  been  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  modern  general — electricity  and  the  aeroplane. 

PERSONNEL. 

It  has  unfortunately  been  the  experience  not  only  of  the  writer, 
but  of  many  officers  of  experience  with  whom  he  has  talked,  that  the 
value  of  a  signal  corps  is  not  so  generally  understood  as  it  should  be, 
and  that  for  this  reason  its  use  is  frequently  neglected  in  peace.  When 
war  comes  it  is  reasonably  certain,  unless  a  change  takes  place  in  this 
respect,  that  many  persons,  especially  men  untrained  in  military 
affairs  who  will  be  called  upon  to  use  the  lines  of  information,  will 
not  be  sufficiently  familiar  with  them  to  employ  to  their  full  measure 
of  usefulness  the  appliances  which  are  now  provided  for  the  service. 

It  will  probably  be  conceded,  considering  the  duties  they  must  per- 
form, that  the  men  who  make  up  the  signal  corps  should  be  intelli- 
gent and  well  instructed;  furthermore,  that  both  officers  and  men 
should  remain  long  with  the  service  and  make  it  their  profession. 
Furthermore,  it  is  obvious  that  all  soldiers  must  be  trained  in  peace  in 
the  use  of  the  weapons  they  will  employ  in  war.  and  no  matter  how 


16  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

efficient  may  be  the  instruments  and  equipment  of  an  army,  no  matter 
how  good  may  be  its  telegraph  lines,  its  radio,  or  its  aeroplanes,  it  is 
certain  that  their  value  will  depend  almost  wholly  upon  the  men  who 
use  them.  Hence  the  need  for  an  efficient  and  trained  personnel  in 
peace  times. 

In  the  United  States  the  transmission  of  military  information  is, 
as  has  been  said,  wisely  placed  in  charge  of  one  corps — the  Signal 
Corps — and  not  scattered  among  several  branches  of  service.  The 
advantage  of  this  concentration  has  been  proved ;  and  it  is  not  perhaps 
saying  too  much  in  claiming  for  the  men  of  this  corps  as  high  a  stand- 
ard of  faithfulness,  industry,  intelligence,  and  efficiency  as  do  or  can 
exist  among  any  body  of  soldiers  the  world  over.  The  enlisted  force 
is  recruited  from  intelligent  men  in  civil  life,  they  are  given  severe 
training,  and  practical  instruction  as  telegraph,  telephone,  and 
radio  men;  as  automobile  drivers;  in  telegraph  construction  and 
maintenance;  in  cable  laying  and  testing;  the  use  of  scientific  and 
electrical  apparatus;  in  the  inflation  and  handling  of  balloons,  and 
scouting  and  reconnaissance  work  of  aeroplanes;  in  the  use  of  visual 
methods  of  signaling;  riding  and  the  care  of  horses  and  pack  animals 
with  the  field  companies;  in  fact,  in  the  almost  innumerable  duties 
which  fall  to  their  lot  in  service  with  their  corps,  and  the  writer  is 
glad  to  be  able  to  say  of  the  signal  troops  in  general  that  in  time  of 
peace  the  work  of  the  corps  is  essential  and  growing  steadily  in  scope 
and  importance.  The  theater  of  opertions  is  widely  extending;  the 
march  of  military  service  is  rapidly  progressing;  electricity  and  the 
mechanical  arts  have  changed  the  very  face  of  war ;  and  so  a  technical 
corps  such  as  is  the  signal  corps  must  use  its  utmost  endeavor  to 
keep  up  with  the  progress  of  ideas.  To  advance  and  to  properly 
perform  the  duties  imposed  upon  it  in  peace,  this  corps  should  be 
provided  with  a  personnel  of  trained  men  in  number  and  skill  to 
carry  on  its  work  in  widely  scattered  regions,  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  In  these  theaters  of  operation  the  corps  is  called  upon  in 
times  of  peace  to  furnish  the  means  of  transmission  of  information 
for  some  90,000  men  of  the  army  on  a  regular  footing,  and  should  war 
arise  it  must  make  provision  for  the  signal  equipment  of  an  army 
presumably  large,  but  of  indeterminate  size. 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  17 

In  addition,  and  above  all,  the  signal  corps  is  charged  with  the 
building  up  of  an  efficient  aeronautical  service ;  and  is  slowly,  labor- 
iously, but,  it  is  believed,  effectively,  performing  the  work.  These 
duties  are  multifarious  and  are  far  too  onerous  and  difficult  to  be  per- 
formed in  their  full  requirement  by  the  force  now  allowed  for  this 
work. 

It  has  been  said  that  recent  field  experiments  with  troops  have 
conclusively  proved  that  for  every  specially  trained  signal  corps 
soldier  provided,  not  only  is  the  field  information  service  many 
times  increased  in  efficiency,  but  that  at  least  two  men  are  returned  to 
the  firing  line  who  would  otherwise  be  removed  therefrom  to  perform 
the  inefficient  and  often  impossible  work  of  the  orderly  of  the  past. 
Since  this  messenger  service  must  be  provided,  either  through  order- 
lies or  trained  signal  troops,  it  is  manifest  that  the  provision  of  a 
minimum  per  cent  of  the  total  strength  for  this  purpose  results)  in 
increasing  the  number  of  men  for  the  firing  line  instead  of  taking 
from  that  line.  In  short,  all  well-informed  military  authorities  are 
now  in  accord  in  advocating  the  development  of  this  branch  of  the 
service  to  the  limit  of  its  possible  usefulness,  and  it  needs  but  a  glance 
at  the  enormous  development  of  the  signal  service  during  the  past 
year  in  Europe  to  realize  the  vast  importance  of  the  lines  for  the  trans- 
mission of  information  to  a  modern  fighting  machine. 

The  duties  of  a  corps  for  intelligence  communication  are  not,  how- 
ever, confined  to  the  transmission  of  information  alone,  though  that  is 
its  principal  function.  For  in  addition  to  this  service  its  troops  will 
have  plenty  of  fighting,  if  not  of  plain  soldiering,  to  do,  not  only  with 
the  infantry  at  the  outposts  and  at  detached  stations,  but  with  the  cav- 
alry in  reconnaissance  work,  and  with  both  when  serving  with  contact 
troops  and  with  patrols.  Indeed,  this  corps,  whose  soldiers  are  classed 
as  staff  troops,  is  while  in  service  kept  by  its  duties  in  the  forefront  of 
military  operations,  and  in  the  war  with  Spain,  as  in  recent  border 
troubles  with  Mexico,  has  suffered  greater  proportional  losses  in 
killed  and  wounded  than  any  other  branch  of  the  army.  The  chief 
duty  of  signalmen  is,  of  course,  to  transmit  information  collected,  but 
they  are  by  no  means  to  remain  blind  and  deaf  to  the  events  taking 
place  around  them.  They  should  gather  all  the  information  possible 
14689—15 2  17 


18  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

and  transmit  it,  through  the  proper  channels,  to  headquarters,  as  is 
the  duty  of  all  soldiers.  Obviously,  while  signalmen  have  unusual 
opportunities  for  the  collection  of  information  in  the  enemy's  coun- 
try, they  have  at  hand  the  means  of  transmission  as  well,  and  thus 
form  one  of  the  strongest  corps  of  observers  with  an  army.  Still  it 
is  not  to  be  forgotten  that  an  army  has  eyes  and  ears  everywhere,  and 
that  the  duty  of  obtaining  information  is  imposed  upon  all.  The 
chance  observation  of  a  sentinel,  a  report  from  an  outpost,  the  story 
of  a  prisoner  or  native  may  have  value  if  sent  in  time  to  the  proper 
authority.  This  is  the  first  duty  of  signalmen ;  but  in  addition  signal 
troops,  and  especially  the  aviators,  have  become,  even  more  than  the 
cavalry,  the  eyes  and  ears  of  the  army. 

From  all  that  has  been  written  it  follows  that  the  need  for  training 
and  experience  on  the  part  of  the  officers  and  men  engaged  on  this 
service  is  too  obvious  to  need  more  than  a  mere  mention  and  it  will  be 
here  sufficient  to  quote,  as  an  indication  of  expert  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject, the  following  remarks  of  a  distinguished  French  officer : 

Information  service  fails  especially  because  the  world  is  ignorant  of  its  prin- 
ciples, processes,  and  modes  of  action.  The  transmission  of  intelligence  demands 
special  organs.  Most  armies  give  some  telegraphic  training  to  noncommissioned 
officers  and  troopers ;  it  is  lost  time.  Those  partly  informed  are  always  incom- 
petent ;  special-trained  men  are  necessary. 

This  brief  statement  contains,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  of  this 
article,  the  wisdom  of  volumes ;  it  might  be  well  considered  a  military 
axiom  to  be  placed  at  the  head  of  all  treatises  and  laws  affecting  the 
army. 


AIR  CRAFT. 


19 


AIR  CRAFT. 

The  signal  corps  is  intrusted  with  the  air  service  of  the  army — 
undoubtedly  the  most  important,  as  it  is  the  most  recent,  auxiliary  in 
the  collection  and  transmission  of  military  information.  Air  craft 
are  now  employed  for  strategical  and  tactical  reconnaissance  and  the 
prevention  of  reconnaissance  by  the  enemy's  air  craft ;  for  the  direc- 
tion and  control  of  fire  of  the  field  artillery;  for  the  destruction  of 
the  enemy's  personnel  and  materiel  by  explosive  and  incendiary 
missiles  and  other  means;  and  for  the  rapid  transportation  of  su- 
perior commanding  officers.  The  value  of  air  craft  and  especially  of 
the  aeroplane,  in  the  field  of  reconnaissance  has  been  proved  beyond 
the  shadow  of  a  doubt.  Whatever  may  be  the  opinions  of  military 
men  as  regards  the  offensive  importance  of  air  craft  and  the  present 
standing  of  the  dirigible  there  is  no  longer  a  question  as  to  the  value 
of  the  aeroplane  in  rapid  and  long-range  reconnaissance  work,  and 
of  its  power  to  secure  and  to  transmit  by  radio,  visual  signal  or  direct- 
flight  information  of  the  utmost  importance  to  armies  in  the  field. 
So  true  is  this  that  it  seems  probable  the  aeroplane  and,  to  some 
smaller  degree,  all  air  craft  have  altered  not  the  principles  of  strategy, 
which  are  immutable,  but  the  theory  and  application  of  grand  tactics. 
It  now  appears  that  the  actual  game  of  war  is  played  openly  with 
cards  laid  on  the  table,  and  opportunity  no  longer  is  given  for  infer- 
ence as  to  concealed  movements  or  for  surprises,  perhaps  not  even  for 
the  exercise  of  the  high  military  quality  of  anticipation  of  the  unseen 
movements  of  the  adversary.  It  is  now  recognized  that  the  possibil- 
ity of  brilliant  and  unexpected  blows  and  surprises  by  enterprising 
commanders  has  been  largely  eliminated  from  modern  operations  of 
war  by  the  information  supplied  by  the  aviators.  It  is  proved  that 
the  modern  air  craft  lays  open  to  the  field  of  mental  view  the  whole 
visible  area  of  the  immediate  theater  of  war  and  that  the  commander's 
vision  reaches  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  actual  sight  of  his  march- 
ing troops.  The  air  craft  sees  and  indicates  the  larger  operations  of 
war  and  points  out  to  the  slowly  moving  men  on  the  ground  not  only 

21 


22  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

the  object  to  be  attacked  or  defended,  but  to  reconnaissance  troops, 
especially  the  cavalry,  the  objective  to  be  sought,  the  localities  to  be 
searched,  and  the  character  of  information  to  be  obtained. 

By  no  means  does  the  air  craft  supersede,  nor  can  it  ever  super- 
sede, the  work  of  obtaining  detailed  information  which  can  be  ac- 
quired only  by  close  observation,  by  contact,  and  by  development  of 
the  enemy's  forces  and  positions.  This  remains  the  duty  of  the  troops 
in  the  field ;  but  the  air  craft  does  indicate  to  either  commander  the 
character,  location,  and  general  disposition  of  opposing  forces,  and 
of  his  own  commands.  Not  only  has  it  been  proved  that  the  aero- 
plane is  invaluable  in  locating  the  position  of  the  enemy,  but  it 
has  especial  value  to  a  commander  in  finding  his  own  troops,  in  keep- 
ing him  informed  when  movements  are  taking  place,  and  of  the  posi- 
tion of  his  flanks  and  center,  his  outposts,  has  cavalry,  his  artillery,  of 
the  positions  attained  by  any  detached  body — in  short,  of  keeping 
him  constantly  in  touch  with  the  locations  and  movements  of  all  the 
units  of  his  command  under  the  changing  conditions  of  war. 

This  much  is  proved,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  the  air  craft  cur- 
tails the  work  of  reconnaissance  of  other  arms  of  the  service,  the 
infantry,  the  signal  corps,  and,  more  especially,  the  cavalry.  On 
the  contrary,  it  extends  the  usefulness  and  power  of  all,  for  if  the 
general  field  of  reconnaissance  is  outlined,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
cavalry  or  infantry  can  more  readily  strike  its  objective  and  more 
quickly  and  accurately  obtain  information  regarding  any  particular 
point  than  if  obliged  unseeingly  to  search  the  whole  field  of  operations 
for  locations  and  forces  regarding  which  an  intimate  knowledge  is 
desired  or  contact  expected.  In  other  words,  by  aid  of  air  craft,  and 
more  especially  of  the  aeroplane,  a  reconnaissance  by  troops  moves 
less  in  the  dark,  knows  better  what  to  look  for  and  search  in  detail, 
and  loses  less  time  and  effort  in  accomplishing  the  object  sought. 
No  move  of  concentration  from  flank  or  center,  no  envelopment  of  a 
wing  nor  reenforcement  of  a  weak  position  should  remain  unknown 
to  the  adversary  in  the  case  where  he  possesses  a  thoroughly  efficient 
flying  corps.  It  would  seem,  therefore,  that  not  only  has  the  power 
of  all  reconnaissance  troops  been  increased  by  the  air  craft,  but  also 
that  the  need  and  importance  of  the  cavalry  in  reconnaissance  work 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  23 

have  not  been  lessened,  but,  on  the  contrary,  have  been  greatly  in- 
creased by  them. 

In  addition  to  the  influence  exerted  by  air  craft  on  grand  oper- 
ations, events  now  appear  to  show  that  their  value  in  more  detailed 
operations  is  great  and  may  increase  in  the  future  to  enormous 
proportions.  It  is  well  established  that  the  accuracy,  value,  and 
effect  in  service  of  field  and  siege  artillery  and,  indeed,  of  the 
heavy  guns  afloat  and  ashore  have  been  greatly  increased  by  this 
agency.  It  may  almost  be  said  that  guns  are  fought  by  means  of 
the  eyes  of  the  aviator.  So  clearly  has  this  been  shown  that  there 
now  appears  a  noticeable  change  in  artillery  practice.  Instead  of 
the  old-fashioned  system  of  range  finding  by  trial  fire  or  of  observa- 
tion from  the  battery  or  elevations  near  by,  the  exact  range  is  now 
found  with  the  help  of  aeroplanes,  by  signaling  positions  and  noting 
the  fall  or  burst  of  the  shrapnel,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
artillery-fire  direction  has  been  enormously  increased  in  accuracy 
by  the  aeroplane,  especially  when  the  shrapnel  burst  can  not  be 
seen  from  below.  Infantry  fire  has  been  largely  improved  in 
efficiency  by  the  same  means. 

Besides  influence  of  this  character  the  aeroplane  has  undoubted 
use  in  the  finding  of  concealed  positions,  in  locating  hidden  howitzers 
or  mortars,  and  in  pursuit  and  rear-guard  actions.  It  will  be  useful 
in  the  location  of  ships  at  sea  or  at  anchor  within  defenses,  possibly 
in  the  detection  of  submarines  and  submarine  mines,  and  certainly 
in  the  enormous  increased  efficiency  given  to  seacoast  gun  fire,  and 
especially  to  the  coast  defense,  the  coast  guard,  and  many  other 
details  of  observation. 

But  the  useful,  approved,  and  most  important  work  of  air  craft 
is  to  be  found  chiefly  in  reconnaissance  and  the  collection  and  trans- 
mission of  information  in  the  theater  of  military  operations.  For  this 
reason  aviation  must  be  reckoned  as  a  vastly  important  branch  of  the 
signal  corps  of  the  army. 

The  use  of  the  aeroplane  as  a  defense  against  aeroplane  attack 
and  for  the  rapid  transmission  of  commanding  officers  or  important 
personages  to  destinations  sought  is,  of  course,  obvious. 


FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  AND  ITS 
RELATION  TO  THE  LINE  OF  THE  ARMY. 


FUNCTIONS   OF   THE   SIGNAL   CORPS  AND   ITS  RELATION   TO   THE 
LINE   OF  THE  ARMY. 

The  duties  of  the  personnel  of  the  signal  corps,  formidable  in 
peace  and  vital  in  war,  cover,  in  addition  to  training  as  a  soldier, 
a  large  amount  of  technical  education,  which  requires  on  the  part 
of  both  officers  and  men  experience  and  intelligence  beyond  the 
ordinary.  The  duties  of  signalmen  are  many  and  varied.  In  peace 
these  duties  require  the  building  of  telegraph  lines  and  stations 
amidst  the  frozen  wastes  of  Alaska ;  the  maintenance  of  radio  service 
across  the  icebound  waters  of  Norton  Sound,  and  the  care  of  cables 
thence  south  to  civilization.  They  include  the  construction  of 
lines  of  information  for  the  people  of  our  distant  island  possessions, 
and  the  permanent  and  wandering  telegraph  and  radio  systems  along 
the  southern  borders  of  the  country.  They  pass  from  the  highly 
technical  work  of  experiment  and  construction  of  electrical  and  scien- 
tific instruments  in  the  laboratories  at  Washington  and  at  the  Army 
Signal  School  and  the  training  of  men  in  telegraphy,  telephony,  and 
radio  work  at  Forts  Wood  and  Leavenworth,  to  the  aeroplane  service 
at  San  Diego  and  San  Antonio,  and  the  tactical  work  and  care  of 
horses  and  equipment  of  field  companies.  Indeed,  so  many  and  so 
varied  are  the  duties  of  the  signal  corps  that  it  would  seem  its 
field  of  endeavor,  if  not  universal,  is  of  such  vast  extent  as  to  be  almost 
boundless.  That  this  field  is  not  cultivated  to  the  highest  point  of 
utility  throughout  its  great  area  and  can  not  be  so  cultivated  until 
the  necessary  means  are  furnished  for  the  work  is  not  the  fault  of 
the  signal  corps  of  the  army.  The  crying  needs  are,  of  course,  men 
and  money,  but  first  of  all  a  comprehension  of  its  fields  of  usefulness 
by  those  who  should  know.  In  other  words,  full  employment. 

The  signal  corps  in  reality,  though  not  in  law,  is  both  a  staff  and 
a  line  corps  and  must  be  trained  in  the  duties  of  both.  The  training 
for  service  with  troops  can  only  come  through  association  with 
the  line,  to  whom,  when  war  comes,  the  signalmen  are  bound  as 

27 


28  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

closely  as  are  the  three  arms  of  the  service  to  each  other,  for  it  should 
be  remembered  that,  like  all  staff  and  auxiliary  troops,  the  signal 
corps  is  essentially  an  adjunct  to  the  line  of  the  army  and  can  have 
no  separate  existence.  Indeed  if  we  omit  its  special  functions  with 
the  coast  defense,  the  value  of  the  signal  corps  depends  solely  upon 
the  use  made  of  it  by  the  line,  and  this  in  turn  upon  the  knowledge 
and  capacity  of  commanding  officers,  to  whom  familiarity  with  the 
scope  and  power  of  the  corps  is  vital.  If  this  knowledge  is  far  less 
than  it  should  be,  as  may  happen  with  troops  hastily  summoned  to 
the  colors,  it  is  a  condition  arising  from  lack  of  opportunity  to  learn. 

In  peace  the  means  of  acquiring  knowledge  of  the  use  of  a  signal 
corps  in  a  practical  way  are  few;  field  exercises  are  almost  the  only 
school.  When  war  comes  the  time  to  learn  has  passed.  Theoretical 
knowledge,  however,  may  be  acquired  by  other  means  than  maneu- 
vers, and  such  knowledge  should  be  insisted  upon,  but  instruction 
should  no*t  begin  and  end  with  senior  officers.  As  with  other  military 
studies,  the  commencement  must  be  made  far  down  the  scale  of  rank, 
in  order  that  the  general  may  put  in  use  instinctively  knowledge  the 
beginnings  of  which  were  acquired  as  a  subaltern.  Hence  the  need  of 
peace  training  in  the  duties  of  this  important  auxiliary  and  of  a  suffi- 
cient personnel  for  its  service  in  peace  to  carry  on  the  work  of  train- 
ing for  war.  Obviously  a  knowledge  of  technical  equipment  can  not 
be  obtained  without  long  application,  and  the  use  of  special  apparatus 
can  not  be  acquired  between  sunrise  and  sunset.  It  follows  that  the 
signal  corps  should,  like  the  field  artillery,  be  maintained  at  full 
war  strength  for  an  army  of  any  probable  size  and  to  leaven  and  in- 
struct the  volunteers  required  for  defense. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  corps  in  peace  should  be  asso- 
ciated as  closely  as  possible  with  the  line  of  the  army,  with  the 
reserves,  the  militia,  and  the  volunteers  if  existent.  With  the  train- 
ing of  these  troops,  their  methods  and  service,  the  signalmen  must 
be  familiar,  for  with  them  his  duties  in  war  will  be  intimately  con- 
nected. It  appears  therefore  that  a  force  of  trained  signalmen 
should  be  present  at  all  exercises  and  maneuvers  of  troops  in  the 
field,  and  that  an  efficient  number  of  signalmen  should  be  placed  at 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  29 

large  garrisons,  training  schools,  and  camps,  and  held  in  readiness 
to  take  part  in  all  movements  and  exercises.  Signalmen,  then,  should 
serve  habitually  with  troops  of  the  mobile  army,  and  especially  with 
the  field  artillery  for  whom  various  forms  of  signal  apparatus,  the 
radio,  and  especially  the  aeroplane  become  most  important  auxiliaries, 
as  have  the  telephone,  the  buzzer,  and  pyrotechnics. 

In  addition,  detachments  of  signalmen  should  perform  many 
duties  in  connection  with  the  coast  defense  and  its  auxiliaries.  Be- 
sides these  two  fields  of  work  lies  the  still  undefined  service  of  the 
coast  guard  where  the  field  apparatus  of  the  signal  corps — the  land 
cables,  the  buzzer,  radio,  aeroplane,  and  perhaps  the  dirigible  and 
captive  balloon — must  find  a  large  and  important  field  for  the 
defense  of  the  country. 

As  has  been  said,  in  addition  to  a  general  knowledge  of  the  methods 
of  transmitting  military  information,  it  appears  that  reasonable 
familiarity  with  the  instruments  and  methods  employed  under  vary- 
ing circumstances  must  be  possessed  by  those  who  will  use  them  in 
the  field,  and  especially  by  those  in  control.  It  is  evident,  for  in- 
stance, that  no  officer  about  to  assume  command  of  an  army  or  of  an 
expeditionary  force  for  service  in  a  distant  country  would  willingly 
lack  information  regarding  the  kinds  of  communication  that  should 
be  used  in  the  work  before  him  and  of  the  types  of  instruments 
necessary;  nor  would  he  care  to  leave  the  selection  of  the  means  of 
establishing  his  lines  of  information  solely  to  the  judgment  of  a 
subordinate,  perhaps  a  stranger.  He  must  know,  or  at  least  he  should 
know,  from  the  nature  of  the  country  and  the  probable  scope  of  his 
future  operations  the  character  of  the  lines  that  he  will  need  and  the 
kind  and  amount  of  material  that  he  will  use,  and  must  provide  him- 
self, within  the  limits  of  his  transportation,  with  everything  that 
experience  and  knowledge  may  suggest  as  useful.  For  that  reason 
he  should  know  generally  the  amount  of  material  to  select,  the  type 
of  lines  of  information  to  be  established,  and  the  number  and  kind 
of  men  necessary  to  use  them.  The  commanding  officer  will  have  a 
signal  officer  on  his  staff,  no  doubt,  to  whom  all  details  should  be 
intrusted,  as  he  Avill  have  an  ordnance  officer  and  an  engineer,  or  a 
quartermaster;  but  he  should  assure  himself  personally  that  his 


30  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

means  of  transmitting  information  are  sufficient  for  the  work  ahead, 
that  they  conform  to  his  plans  and  to  the  probable  field  of  action, 
just  as  of  his  own  knowledge  he  will  make  sure  of  the  arms  carried 
by  his  men,  the  type  of  his  artillery,  the  amount  of  his  ammunition, 
the  size  of  his  pontoon  train,  and  the  character  of  his  ration. 

This  preparatory  work  of  a  commander  implies  some  knowledge  of 
the  service  of  the  lines  of  information  and  of  the  instruments  used, 
but  only  knowledge  of  a  general  nature.  It  is  after  he  takes  the  field 
that  his  capacity  and  experience  are  called  fully  into  play.  Then,  in- 
deed, in  addition  to  his  own  knowledge  he  will  require  all  the  assistance 
that  the  most  skillful  of  his  signal  officers  can  render  in  determining 
the  kind,  scope,  and  plan  of  the  lines  of  information,  distribution  of 
men,  and  location  of  stations.  On  the  march,  in  camp,  and  in  contact 
with  the  enemy  such  dispositions  must  be  made  by  him  as  to  not  only 
secure  the  best  service  possible  for  himself  as  commander  of  the 
troops  or  expedition,  but  as  will  give,  also,  to  those  in  subordinate 
command  the  fullest  advantage  of  the  lines  and  the  quickest  trans- 
mission of  information  and  intelligence. 


FIELD  LINES  OP  INFORMATION. 


31 


FIELD   LINES   OF   INFORMATION. 
THE    DIVISION. 

The  ordinary  lines  of  information  of  a  division  under  the  three 
conditions  of  the  camp,  the  march,  and  contact  with  the  enemy  are 
worth  a  word  of  consideration,  although  they  can  not,  of  course,  be 
definitely  fixed.  Assuming  that  the  division  is  to  be  assembled  at 
some  suitable  locality,  and  a  more  or  less  permanent  camp  is  estab- 
lished, an  officer  will  no  doubt  first  be  sent  to  select  sites  for  the  en- 
campments of  the  various  units;  quartermaster  officers  will  locate 
their  depots ;  and  the  medical  officer  the  field  hospitals.  It  will  then 
become  the  duty  of  the  signal  officer  of  the  division  to  install  the 
lines  of  information.  With  division,  corps,  and  army  headquar- 
ters there  wrill  travel  a  radio-tractor  set  of  the  largest  or  smaller  type 
now  adopted  by  the  signal  corps,  and  these  will  first  be  put  in  com- 
mission. Then  the  signal  officer  will  establish  at  division  headquar- 
ters a  central  station  and  connect  this  with  the  most  convenient  tele- 
graph and  telephone  offices  through  which  communication  may  be 
had  with  the  commercial  systems  of  the  country  or  with  the  base. 
He  will  establish  a  camp  and  depot  where  will  be  stored  all  material 
needed  for  extended  and  varied  service.  Next  he  will  connect  by 
wire  or  radio  corps  or  army  headquarters  (if  such  exist)  and  for 
convenience  will  carry  telephone  lines  to  the  chief  quartermaster  and 
surgeon  as  well  as  to  the  depots,  hospitals,  and  corrals.  As  the  troops 
arrive  at  their  camps,  telephone  or  buzzer  lines  will  be  run  from  the 
division  central  to  brigade  headquarters,  the  camps  of  the  engineers, 
the  signal  corps,  the  cavalry,  field  artillery,  to  independent  com- 
mands at  a  distance,  and  probably  to  aero  squadrons;  through  regi- 
mental to  battalion  headquarters ;  and  in  case  of  need  to  outpost  sta- 
tions or  trenches. 

Within  the  divisional  camp  itself  the  telephone  will  be  the  ordi- 
nary means  of  communication  between  fixed  stations,  the  telegraph 
14689—15 3  33 


34  THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

or  radio  being  reserved  for  more  distant  work;  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  will  usually  be  carried  by  lances.  In  addition  to  the 
more  permanent  lines,  temporary  buzzer  or  field  wires  will  be  laid  to 
changing  positions,  such  as  outlying  observation  points,  at  the  front 
or  on  the  flanks,  to  the  outposts,  and  to  aero  stations.  In  short,  every 
important  point  will  be  connected  with  division  headquarters  and  the 
whole  command  linked  together  and  connected  with  the  base  and 
the  larger  units  by  wire  or  radio.  In  a  camp  of  this  character  the 
radio — pack,  tractor,  or  horse  drawn — should  be  of  great  value.  In 
camp,  then,  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  using  fully  the  lines 
of  information,  since  the  extent  and  direction  of  the  system  are 
known  and  the  stations  are  easily  found. 

On  the  march  the  lines  of  information  and  the  stations  for  a  divi- 
sion become  fewer  and  the  latter  more  difficult  to  reach.  Some  gen- 
eral considerations  may  be  noted.  First,  a  division  on  the  march 
must  at  no  time  lose  electrical  connection  with  its  base  through  the 
last  station  occupied,  and  for  this  purpose  the  pack  radio  may  well 
be  used.  As  the  advance  continues  lines  will  extend  forward  or  the 
radio  will  maintain  communication  with  the  commanding  general; 
that  is,  to  some  position  designated  by  him  as  his  own  during  the  day 
or  night.  This  position  becomes,  so  far  as  the  lines  of  information 
are  concerned,  the  headquarters.  As  radio  stations,  the  buzzer,  or 
field  wire  advance  they  should  be  followed,  if  practicable,  by  the 
telegraph  train  with  the  necessary  material  for  a  lance  line  to  replace 
the  field  or  buzzer  wire,  for  the  latter  is  expensive  and  may  be  scarce, 
and  if  exposed  is  liable  to  injury  from  passing  troops  and  transport; 
and  resulting  faults,  if  within  the  envelope,  are  not  readily  located. 
However,  so  rapid  at  times  with  good  roads  and  in  an  open  country 
is  the  advance  of  a  lance  line  erected  by  trained  men  that  no  field 
cable,  or  very  little,  need  be  used  on  the  march.  Later,  when  ma- 
terial is  at  hand,  the  lance  lines  may  in  turn  be  replaced  by  a  per- 
manent system  erected  by  the  telegraph  troops  and  the  lances  re- 
covered; but  this  construction  is  necessary  only  when  the  system  is 
to  be  used  for  a  long  period.  On  the  march  the  buzzer  wire  may 
follow  the  general  line  of  advance  of  the  commander  by  extending 
from  one  conspicuous  station  to  another  designated  by  him.  Of 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  35 

course,  the  field  line  or  radio  only  will  be  used  for  rapid  work;  the 
latter  by  the  leapfrog  method,  i.  e.,  by  the  use  of  three  sections,  the 
rear  station  jumping  past  the  two  preceding  and  thus  constantly 
maintaining  two  stations  in  operation. 

The  units  of  command  should  in  the  advance  be  kept  so  far  as  possi- 
ble in  touch  with  each  other;  but  as  these  units  frequently  move  by 
different  routes,  and  as  cross  lines  are  impracticable  except  at  halts, 
and  always  objectionable,  field  or  buzzer  wires  must  stretch  from  the 
last  field  station  maintained  at  the  rear  to  corps  headquarters  and  to 
brigade  and  important  commands,  as  the  ribs  of  a  fan  expand;  but 
here,  again,  the  radio  may  best  be  used.  Wire  communication,  if  pos- 
sible at  all  between  the  general  and  detached  commands,  or  cavalry 
at  the  flanks,  will  also  usually  be  maintained  in  this  way  or  communi- 
cation will  be  had  by  means  of  visual,  radio  signals  or  the  aeroplane. 
Indeed,  in  flank  communication  there  is  a  great  field  for  the  radio 
and  aeroplane.  During  halts  wire  lines  can  quickly  be  thrown  out, 
but  here  visual  signaling  may  be  used  to  advantage,  and  above  all  the 
radio,  especially  of  the  wheel  type. 

The  day's  march  over,  the  division  eats  and  rests ;  not  so  the  signal- 
men. Then  radio  stations  must  be  established  and  buzzer  lines  run 
from  the  advance  guard,  from  the  flanks,  from  the  corps  headquarters, 
and  from  the  rear  to  division  headquarters,  and  others  laid  to  out- 
posts and  reserves;  and  still  others  to  detached  posts,  to  observation 
stations  and  important  points  where  pickets  are  maintained.  A  cen- 
tral station  will  be  established  and  from  it  as  many  secondary  lines 
laid  to  brigade  headquarters,  auxiliary  and  detached  troops  as  the 
general  may  deem  necessary,  a  matter  which  will  undoubtedly  depend 
upon  proximity  to  the  enemy  and  the  length  of  time  the  camp  will  be 
occupied.  Again  the  field  radio  will  be  of  enormous  value. 

In  a  retiring  movement  lines  of  information  will  be  as  few  as  pos- 
sible, and  mainly  used  to  connect  the  rear  guard,  probably  by  radio, 
with  the  general  commanding.  Provision  should  be  made,  however, 
to  tie  flanking  parties  thrown  out  at  intersecting  roads  with  the 
marching  columns  and  to  recall  those  troops  as  the  rear  passes.  In 
these  operations  the  aeroplane  will  find  an  important  part  to  play. 
It  will  be  well  also  to  connect  retreating  columns  moving  by  different 


36  THE   SERVICE    OF    IXFORMA 


and  this  can  be  done  by  wire  and  radio  more  readily  than  in  the 
advance,  since  lines  extending  to  the  front  of  the  retreating  force  will 
not  ordinarily  be  in  danger  of  interruption,  except  from  a  very  active 
and  overwhelming  cavalry.  Thus  in  the  retreat  central  stations  may 
be  thrown  out  far  ahead  and  wires  led  back  to  the  marching  columns 
Eke  the  ribs  of  a  fan,  as  in  the  advance,  to  be  taken  up  as  the  columns 
pass,  if  not  abandoned.  Of  course  if  the  retreat  follows  the  line  of 
the  advance,  stations  on  that  line  that  have  been  maintained  will 
become  the  central  through  which  various  units  may  be  reached. 

A-  the  period  of  actual  contact  with  the  enemy  approaches,  the 
most  serious  of  the  problems  of  the  lines  of  information  arise.  Then, 
indeed,  it  becomes  necessary  for  a  commanding  general  not  only  to 
Inow  what  he  can  reasonably  expect  from  these  lines,  but  to  weigh 
their  chances  of  maintenance  and  the  extent  to  which  they  may  be 
usefully  employed.  He  must  know  the  terrain  and  the  best  means 
•f  sending  messages  across  it:  he  must  know  his  enemy  and  the 
probability  of  successful  attempts  on  the  latter's  part  to  cut  the  wires 
Mr  drown  the  radio,  and  in  difficulties  he  must  try  every  means  of 
signaling  that  offers  a  chance  of  success.  An  active  and  numerous 
hostile  cavalry  will,  if  unchecked,  make  communication  by  wire 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  outside  the  limits  of  control,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  an  inert  cavalry  need  hardly  be  considered.  Herein 
lies  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  fields  of  usefulness  of  the  aeroplane. 

However,  as  the  division  approaches  the  enemy  the  commander  will 
make  as  certain  as  possible  of  his  lines  of  information — wire,  radio, 
or  aeroplane — with  corps  and  army  headquarters,  with  supporting 
and  reserve  troops,  and  with  the  rear,  and  when  actual  contact  comes 
buzzer  lines  will  be  carried  to  brigades,  to  regiments,  and  sometimes 
to  the  outposts.  It  seems  probable  that  the  radio  now  will  be  less  im- 
portant, and.  for  the  troops  engaged,  buzzer  lines  will  be  carried  for- 
ward  to  the  firing  line,  where  trained  observers,  perhaps  officers,  with 
buzzers  or  the  field  telephone,  will  be  placed  to  send  back  important 
information  as  regards  control  and  fire.  It  may  be  practicable  at  the 
beginning  of  the  action  to  maintain  touch  by  radio  or  even  by  wire 
between  the  smaller  reserves,  the  supports,  and  the  main  bodies,  but 


THE    SERVICE    OF    INFORMATION.  37 

the  latter  is  doubtful,  since  a  great  multiplicity  of  wires  on  the  field 
of  battle  is  hazardo 

All  can  not  probably  be  maintained  in  the  face  of  marching  troops, 
and  untrustworthy  lines  may  do  actual  harm  by  failing  when  most 
needed  and  overthrowing  calculations  or  defeating  movements,  the 
opportuneness  of  which  depends  upon  rapid  transmission  of  orders 
and  information.  But  this  objection  applies  to  all  lines  of  informa- 
tion, except  the  aeroplane.  Then.  tco.  wires  may  be  cut  by  the 
enemy's  fire  as  at  Xueve  Chappelle. 

Of  course,  when  the  division  is  actually  engaged  against  the  enemy 
•Himander  will  extend  his  field  or  buzzer  lines  to  the  positions 
occupied  by  the  infantry  and  artillery  commands.  He  will  depend 
in  general  en  the  radio  to  keep  him  in  tcuch  with  his  cavalry.  The 
artillery  will  no  dcubt.  in  addition  to  its  other  lines  of  information, 
establish  between  batteries  a  system  of  fire  control  to  enable  the  chief 
of  artillery  or  the  division  commander  to  concentrate  or  disperse  the 
fire  as  needs  demand,  and  for  efficiency  of  fire  will  depend  upon  the 
aeroplanes.  In  addition  to  this,  the  commanding  general  will  early 
establish  lines  of  information  by  field  telephone  or  by  buzzer,  by 
radio,  and  by  visual  signals  between  some  fixed  positions  (designated 
as  his  own »  and  the  observation  stations,  captive  balloons,  or  aero- 
planes. From  these  should  come  the  most  timely  of  his  information 
regarding  the  movements  of  friend  or  enemy,  and  notice  of  the 
changes  taking  place  in  the  shifting  panorama  of  war  which  no  single 
observer  can  perceive. 

From  events  abroad  it  seems  that  under  no  conditions  in  the  field 
are  lines  of  information  of  more  importance  than  in  the  fire  direction 
of  field  batteries,  of  enormous  guns  and  mortars  and  in  the  trench 
fighting  that  has  now  become  so  enormously  important  in  campaign. 
The  development  shown,  especially  in  wire,  telephone,  and  even 
microphone  signals,  though  not  yet  fully  known  in  detail,  points  t« 
applications  of  electricity  to  the  fighting  line  undreamed  of  a  year 
ago.  The  radio,  though  still  of  unproven  value  so  far  as  known  in 
aviation  work,  is  of  major  importance  in  the  field  and  especially  whe» 
used  at  the  larger  headquarters.  It  is  thought  that  the  four  types — 
pack,  divisional  tractor,  army  tractor,  and  skid — now  in  use  or  under 
construction  by  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  are  quite  equal  to  anj 


38  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

elsewhere  existing.  To  these  must  be  added  wheel  radio  of  the  horse- 
drawn  type  especially  adapted  to  service  with  field  companies.  But 
in  the  development  of  the  uses  of  the  telephone  perhaps  the  greatest 
extension  of  service  is  to  be  noted. 

Again,  in  the  firing  of  the  great  howitzers  and  mortars,  concealed 
of  course  from  observation,  the  laying  and  firing  is  done  habitually 
by  telephone  from  some  probably  distant  point  of  observation.  But 
it  is  useless  here  to  multiply  instances,  and  not  until  long  after  the 
present  war  is  ended  will  a  full  knowledge  of  these  and  other  mar- 
velous developments  be  known.  But  enough  is  now  known  or  sur- 
mised to  make  it  certain  that  the  work  of  a  signal  corps  is  growing 
by  leaps  and  bounds. 

So  much  for  the  lines  of  information  of  the  larger  bodies  of  troops. 
In  the  case  of  a  small  independent  or  expeditionary  force  the  prob- 
lem is  easier  but  not  less  important.  If  operating  in  an  enemy's 
country,  especially  if  the  movements  are  connected  with  a  boat  expe- 
dition or  with  the  navy,  somewhat  less  weight  must  be  given  to 
wire  communications  and  more  reliance  be  placed  upon  visual  signal- 
ing, the  aeroplane,  and  on  the  portable  radio  of  the  field  or  skid 
type.  With  all  such  expeditions  a  supply  of  Very  pistols  and  day 
and  night  rockets  should  be  carried,  for  they  are  of  value  as  pre- 
concerted signals,  or  to  indicate  location  and  time.  The  field  acety- 
lene lantern  will  also  be  extremely  useful,  for  its  range  under  favor- 
able conditions  is  easily  20  miles,  and  it  can  be  used  by  hand  even 
from  a  boat  on  quiet  water.  But,  in  addition,  buzzer  and  field  wire 
in  necessary  amount  must  be  carried  as  well  as  buzzers  and  field  tele- 
phones, if  practicable.  The  amount  of  material  will  be  small,  how- 
ever, if  pack  train  or  light  transport  alone  can  be  used,  and  all  large 
wire  and  heavy  material  must  be  omitted. 

If  the  force  is  to  maintain  communication  with  its  base  or  main 
body  or  is  placed  on  the  coast  as  a  support  to  fixed  positions,  lance 
lines,  in  addition  to  the  radio,  should  be  thrown  forward  to  meet  the 
necessarily  limited  field  lines,  which  must  be  used  for  the  safety  and 
success  of  the  expedition  as  it  advances.  For  this  purpose  the  light 
wire  and  instruments  needed  to  maintain  touch  with  the  advance 
guard,  outposts,  and  other  important  points  will  be  carried.  An  ex- 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  39 

cellent  example  of  this  was  offered  in  the  advance  to  Pekin  at  the  time 
of  the  Boxer  troubles.  Expeditions  of  this  kind  offer  an  important 
field  to  radiotelegraph}7. 

Little  has  been  said  regarding  the  use  of  radiotelegraphy,  as  it  is 
obvious  that  the  details  of  control  of  this  important  adjunct  must  be 
left  to  the  commanding  generals  of  divisions  or  of  higher  units  and 
their  chief  signal  officers.  .  The  same  considerations  apply  to  the 
service  of  aeroplanes  and  of  captive  balloons.  The  aeroplane  is  no 
doubt  the  greatest  of  all  means  of  obtaining  information  in  war,  as 
the  radio  is  at  all  times  the  most  important  of  all  methods  of  trans- 
mission, since  it  can  not  be  cut,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  may 
be  kept  free  from  interference  and  remain  confidential  when  used 
with  even  a  simple  cipher.  The  captive  balloon,  too,  seems  to  be 
again  coming  into  importance.  It  is  to  be  added,  however,  that  the 
most  reliable  means  of  transmitting  information  when  a  line  can  be 
maintained  free  from  interruption  is  the  telegraph  key  or  the  buzzer. 

FIELD  LINES  OF  INFORMATION,  CONCLUSION. 

The  signal  corps  is  especially  organized,  trained,  and  equipped 
for  the  collection  and  transmission  of  military  information,  and  it 
follows  that  only  the  most  general  instructions  should  be  given  to 
officers  and  men  as  to  the  manner  of  performing  their  duties.  It  is 
inadvisable,  especially  in  brief  field  orders,  to  attempt  detailed  in- 
structions; it  will  suffice  in  such  orders  to  state  the  commands  to 
be  joined,  their  location,  and  a  broad  statement  of  the  object  desired. 
No  details  need  be  specified  as  to  the  means  by  which  communi- 
cations are  to  be  maintained.  It  must  be  assumed  that  the  signal 
officer,  acting  under  his  general  instructions  and  the  orders  of  his 
immediate  commander,  will  possess  the  knowledge,  the  initiative, 
and  the  energy  to  meet  conditions  as  they  arise.  This,  however,  does 
not  follow  regarding  the  air  service  when  the  particular  objective  of 
the  commander  of  a  division  or  of  field  artillery  must  be  designated. 

The  signal  officer  at  headquarters,  in  addition  to  caring  for  the 
technical  administration  and  supply  of  the  signal  troops,  will  keep 
himself  informed  as  to  the  location  of  commands,  the  time  and  char- 
acter of  projected  movements;  in  short,  regarding  all  actual  and 


40  THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

probable  happenings,  so  that  he  may  make  due  provision  in  advance. 
He  must  arrange  for  the  prompt  transmission  to  proper  authority  of 
information  received,  and  for  the  delivery  of  all  messages.  He  will 
see  that  the  military  intelligence  contained  in  messages  to  the  com- 
manding general  and  chief  of  staff  is  properly  recorded  on  the  map 
or  otherwise  graphically  so  as  to  be  instantly  available,  and  for  this 
purpose  should  establish  a  central  station  at  division  headquarters, 
equipped  to  properly  file  all  messages  sent  and  received,  in  chrono- 
logical order  and  by  organizations.  This  station  should  also  be  able 
to  furnish  at  all  times  exact  information  as  to  signal  stations  and 
location  of  troops.  In  carrying  out  the  regulations  for  transmission 
of  messages  over  any  lines,  the  chief  signal  officer  at  army,  corps,  or 
division  headquarters  will  be  called  upon  to  act  as  censor,  a  task  re- 
quiring great  tact  and  judgment.  Another  duty  of  a  senior  signal 
officer,  especially  important  since  the  introduction  of  radiotelegraphy 
in  the  field,  is  the  use  of  code  and  cipher.  To  him  should  be  given 
the  responsibility  for  the  issue  of  code  books,  the  preparation  of 
ciphers,  the  enforcement  of  the  rules  for  their  use,  the  coding  and  en- 
ciphering of  messages  at  headquarters,  and  the  deciphering  of  mes- 
sages received.  This  responsibility  will  be  no  small  thing.  In  addi- 
tion a  signal  officer  in  the  field  will  be  charged  with  the  issue  of  field 
glasses,  visual  signal  and  electrical  apparatus  in  the  hands  of  line 
troops,  and  will  make  the  necessary  provision  for  their  use  to  cooper- 
ate with  the  field  organizations  of  signal  troops.1 

Enough,  perhaps  too  much,  has  been  said  regarding  lines  of  in- 
formation in  the  field,  but  the  subject  is  interesting  and  vast.  A 
commander  who  can  profit  by  the  service  of  information  to  the  full 
extent  and  knows  how  and  when  to  use  telephone,  buzzer,  radio,  visual 
signals,  and  the  aeroplane,  possesses  great  ability,  if  not  genius,  but 
there  are  lesser  degrees  of  benefit  to  be  derived,  and  an  ordinary  man 
provided  with  these  aids  to  success  is  far  better  armed  than  genius 
without  them.  The  commander,  then,  aided  by  his  chief  signal 
officer,  must  plan  and  direct, but  the  signal  officers  and  men  under  them 
must  execute ;  on  their  energy  and  ability  will  depend  the  value  and 
success  of  the  lines  of  information. 

1  Taken  largely,  but  with  unimportant  modifications,  from  official  bulletin  from  the  office 
of  the  Chief  of  Staff. 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  41 

One  other  factor  of  importance  enters  the  problem,  and  that  is 
familiarity  on  the  part  of  those  authorized  to  use  the  lines  of  infor- 
mation not  merely  with  their  character  and  scope  but  with  their  objec- 
tives, their  value,  and  the  location  of  their  stations.  Of  what  use, 
for  instance,  to  an  officer  having  important  information  to  forward, 
is  a  network  of  field  wires  going  he  knows  not  where;  of  radio  or 
visual  stations  in  unknown  places  which  he  has  not  time  to  find  ?  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  systems  of  lines  of  information  must  not  only 
be  skillfully  established  and  maintained,  but  that  their  scope  and 
direction  must  be  as  well  known  and  as  familiar  to  those  who  Lave  to 
use  them  as  the  mail  and  telegraph  offices  of  a  town  are  to  the  average 
citizen.  As  a  consequence,  the  commanding  general  should  not  keep 
himself  alone  informed  regarding  the  systems  established  and  the 
location  of  stations,  but  he  should  send  this  information  through  the 
proper  channels  to  those  in  command  under  him,  who  should  in  turn 
transmit  it  to  all  who  are  entitled  to  receive  it ;  and,  in  addition,  the 
general  should  take  every  opportunity,  by  orders  or  circulars,  to  im- 
press upon  his  subordinates  the  importance  of  familiarity  with  the 
systems  as  established  and  a  knowledge  of  the  location  of  stations  and 
of  the  quickest  way  to  reach  them.  Care  in  this  matter  should  be  en- 
joined until  such  familiarity  with  the  lines  of  information  and  sta- 
tions exists  as  to  cause  the  use  of  the  lines  to  become  instinctive  and 
the  messenger  to  be  forgotten.  The  subject  of  the  use  of  lines  of  in- 
formation requires  some  study  and  thought  on  the  part  of  all  soldiers. 

In  endeavoring  to  present  the  foregoing  practical  considerations 
the  writer  has,  perhaps,  tried  the  patience  of  such  readers  as  may  do 
him  the  honor  to  peruse  this  paper.  Nevertheless,  faultily  as  these 
ideas  have  been  presented,  he  believes  it  unwise  to  curtail  or  omit 
them,  trusting  if  defective  in  themselves  they  may  inspire  better 
efforts  on  the  part  of  others.  The  demand  upon  all  military  men 
of  the  day  is  work,  and  work  applied  to  the  development  of  the  great 
field  offered  by  the  service  of  intelligence  can  not  help  producing  an 
abundant  harvest.  The  signal  corps  can  not  work  alone;  it  needs 
the  best  assistance  that  the  army  as  a  whole  can  render,  and  that 
assistance  can  'best  be  given  the  signal  corps  by  service  with  the  line 
troops. 


SIGNAL  CORPS  IN  WAR. 


43 


SIGNAL   COUPS   IN  WAB. 

In  war  the  field  of  operations  of  the  signal  corps  contracts  in 
extent,  but  the  thin  layer  of  work  made  to  answer  in  peace  will  no 
longer  suffice  to  meet  the  strenuous  conditions  imposed.  Then, 
indeed,  the  duties  become  so  imperative  and  exacting  that  no  aids  to 
this  service  may,  without  danger,  be  omitted  to  enable  the  corps  to 
fully  meet  its  needs. 

I  can  at  this  moment  think  of  no  better  practical  and  actual  de- 
scription of  the  value  and  extent  of  lines  of  military  information 
in  the  modern  operations  for  war  than  that  given  in  a  letter  from  an 
English  officer  and  quoted  in  the  London  Times  History  of  the  War : 

I  am  very  much  surprised  to  see  in  the  English  press  so  little  mention  made 
of  the  field  telegraphs  or  signal  service,  as  it  is  now  known.  In  time  of  war 
the  signal  companies  of  the  Royal  Engineers  are  one  of  the  most  important 
and  necessary  arms  of  the  service.  They  are  the  nerves  of  the  army. 

Most  of  the  important  towns  in  the  north  of  France  and  also  London  and 
Paris  are  in  direct  touch  with  general  headquarters.  They  are  called  the  main 
lines  of  communication,  and  over  their  lines  day  and  night  pass  a  continuous 
flood  of  traffic  for  the  hospital  bases,  ordnance,  remount,  and  store  depots. 
From  general  headquarters  radiate  wires  to  the  various  army  corps  head- 
quarters, and,  again,  each  army  has  its  communications  to  the  divisions,  which, 
further,  have  wires  right  up  to  the  brigades.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  the 
space  of  a  few  minutes  the  war  office  is  fully  and  clearly  informed  of  what  is 
going  on  in  the  firing  line.  In  fact,  were  the  lines  joined  straight  through  it 
would  be  possible  to  hear  the  roar  of  artillery  and  the  bursting  of  shrapnel  in 
Martin's-le-Grand. 

As  the  tide  of  battle  turns  this  way  or  the  other  and  headquarters  are  constantly 
moving  some  means  have  to  be  provided  to  keep  in  constant  touch  with  general 
headquarters  during  the  movement.  This  emergency  is  met  by  cable  detach- 
ments. Each  detachment  consists  of  two  cable  wagons,  which  usually  work  in 
conjunction  with  one  another,  one  section  laying  the  line  whilst  the  other 
remains  behind  to  reel  up  when  the  line  is  finished  with.  A  division  is  ordered 
to  move  quickly  to  a  more  tactical  position.  The  end  of  the  cable  is  connected 
with  the  permanent  line,  which  communicates  to  army  headquarters,  and  the 
cable  detachment  moves  off  at  a  trot;  across  country,  along  roads,  through 
villages,  and  past  columns  of  troops,  the  white  and  blue  badge  of  the  signal 
service  clears  the  way.  Behind  the  wagon  rides  a  horseman,  who  deftly  lays 

45 


46  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

the  cable  in  the  ditches  and  hedges  out  of  danger  from  heavy  transport  and 
the  feet  of  tramping  infantry  with  the  aid  of  a  crooked  stick.  Other  horsemen 
are  in  the  rear  tying  back  and  making  the  lines  safe.  On  the  box  of  the  wagon 
sits  a  telegraphist,  who  is  constantly  in  touch  with  headquarters  as  the  cable 
runs  swiftly  out.  An  orderly  dashes  up  with  an  important  message ;  the  wagon 
is  stopped,  the  message  dispatched,  and  on  they  go  again. 

At  Le  Gateau  the  situation  was  so  desperate  that  signal  companies  were  sent 
to  the  trenches  to  assist  the  infantry  in  repelling  a  heavy  attack.  For  this 
piece  of  work  we  were  highly  complimented  by  Gen.  Smith-Dorien,  who  at  the 
same  time  expressed  his  great  satisfaction  at  the  way  in  which  his  communi- 
cations had  been  established  throughout  the  campaign. 

Telegraphists  are  often  left  on  duty  in  the  trenches  and  lonely  farmhouses, 
chateaux,  etc.,  close  to  the  firing  line,  and  I  leave  it  to  your  imagination  ta 
picture  how  difficult  it  is  to  concentrate  one's  mind  on  the  signaling  and 
reception  of  important  messages  while  the  air  is  filled  with  the  deafening  roar 
of  artillery  and  the  screaming  and  bursting  of  shells.  An  experience  of  this 
kind  happened  to  me  a  short  time  ago  in  a  lonely  chateau  on  the  Ypres-Menin 
Road.  The  chateau  was  the  center  of  a  perfect  hell  of  German  shrapnel  for 
nearly  a  week,  until  it  became  almost  untenable,  and  was  abandoned  by  the 
headquarters'  staff.  The  general  gave  instructions  that  a  telegraphist  was  to 
remain  behind  to  transmit  important  messages  from  the  brigades,  and  I  was 
left  in  charge  of  the  instruments  in  this  shell-swept  chateau  for  a  day  and  a 
night.  On  the  second  day  the  Germans  broke  through  our  trenches,  and  wires 
were  cut  by  the  shell  fire.  I  was  given  orders  to  evacuate  the  building  and 
smash  up  my  instruments.  These  I  saved  by  burying  in  a  shellproof  trench, 
and  then  I  had  to  escape  between  our  own  fire  and  that  of  the  enemy's  across 
a  field  under  a  terrible  tornado  of  shrapnel.  On  the  early  morning  of  the  same 
day  one  of  our  cable  detachments  was  cut  up  and  another  captured  by  the 
Germans,  only  to  be  retaken  by  our  sappers  and  drivers  after  a  desperate  and 
glorious  fight. 

In  the  region  of  the  Aisne,  where  the  hilly  and  wooded  nature  of  the  country 
admitted  of  much  cover,  spies  often  took  advantage  of  this  to  tap  out  wires. 
The  lines  are  constantly  patrolled  by  mounted  linemen,  whose  duty  is  attended 
with  much  risk.  On  one  occasion  a  lineman  in  passing  along  his  patrol  noticed 
that  there  was  a  quantity  of  slack  cable  lying  on  the  side  of  the  road.  Dis- 
mounting to  coil  it  up  out  of  the  reach  of  traffic  he  found  to  his  surprise  that 
a  piece  of  spare  wire  had  been  tied  into  the  main  line,  and  upon  investigating 
discovered  that  it  led  to  the  top  of  a  haystack,  the  wire  being  cunningly  hidden 
in  the  straw.  Going  farther  down  the  line  he  tapped  it  and  reported  the  mat- 
ter to  headquarters,  then  mounting  guard  over  the  haystack  he  awaited  the 
arrival  of  an  armed  escort,  who  discovered  the  spy,  together  with  several  days' 
supply  of  food,  hidden  in  the  depth  of  the  hay. 


THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFOKMATION.  47 

Wireless  telegraphy,  of  course,  plays  an  important  part  in  this  war,  most  of 
the  larger  aeroplanes  being  equipped  with  apparatus,  by  which  means  they 
swiftly  communicate  important  observations  to  headquarters,  The  Germans 
also  make  elaborate  use  of  this  system. 

An  instance  was  related  by  an  American  correspondent  present  on 
one  occasion  at  a  German  headquarters  mess  when,  in  reply  to  a  ques- 
tion of  conditions  on  the  firing  line,  some  40  miles  away,  the  general 
commanding  took  up  a  telephone  receiver  from  the  table,  called  one 
station  and  there  was  distinctly  heard  the  boom,  boom  of  the  artillery 
and  the  rat-a-tat  of  infantry  fire;  connecting  with  a  second  station 
farther  along  the  lines  of  the  western  front,  merely  the  infantry  fire 
was  heard,  and  still  farther  along  the  trenches  was  silence — a  complete 
and  instantaneous  report  of  fighting  conditions  as  they  existed. 

Of  course,  numberless  examples  may  be  cited  from  the  civil  and 
subsequent  wars,  but  it  seems  unnecessary  to  note  others  here. 


PRESENT  ORGANIZATION. 


14689—15 4  49 


PRESENT   ORGANIZATION. 

To  perform  the  work  at  present  imposed  upon  the  signal  corps 
there  is  provided  an  organization  made  up  of  1  chief  signal  officer, 
9  field  officers,  18  captains,  18  lieutenants,  and  1,212  enlisted  men, 
In  addition,  there  are  allowed  for  the  aviation  section  of  the  signal 
corps  60  officers  and  260  enlisted  men. 

It  should  be  evident,  if  allowance  be  made  for  absentees,  the  sick, 
changes  of  details  from  and  to  the  Philippines,  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
Panama,  and  other  losses,  that  the  actual  number  authorized  is  far 
too  small  to  carry  on  properly  the  duties  that  the  mobile  army,  the 
coast  defenses,  Alaska,  Hawaii,  Panama,  and  the  Philippines  have 
a  right  to  expect  from  a  signal  corps  in  peace,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
coast  guard.  Should  activities  break  out  this  force  would  be  too 
small  to  even  properly  leaven  the  large  mass  of  men  that  must 
be  called  into  the  service  of  the  lines  of  information.  In  reality, 
the  present  authorized  force  of  the  signal  corps  is  about  one-half 
the  number  properly  proportionate  to  the  maximum  strength  of 
the  regular  army,  fixed  at  100,000  men.  The  army  may  be  in- 
creased to  that  number  by  executive  order  at  any  time,  but  the 
signal  corps  can  only  be  increased  by  legislation.  It  is  obvious  also, 
in  considering  the  enormous  present  importance  of  aeronautics,  espe- 
cially of  aviation  in  the  conduct  of  military  affairs,  that  the  number 
of  officers  and  men  allowed  by  law  for  the  aviation  service  is  utterly 
inadequate  for  this  work.  Indeed,  as  will  be  later  shown,  the  force 
provided  is  hardly  more  than  a  nucleus  upon  which  to  build. 

SIGNAL  CORPS  AT  LARGE. 

The  field  organization  of  the  signal  corps  at  large  includes  5  field 
companies  and  1  telegraph  company.  One  field  company  is  stationed 
in  the  Philippines,  1  in  Hawaii,  1  in  the  Canal  Zone,  and  2  com- 
panies are  on  duty  in  the  United  States.  Two  platoons  and  head- 
quarters detachment  of  a  telegraph  company  are  on  duty  in  the 

51 


52  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

United  States  and  a  platoon  is  stationed  in  the  Canal  Zone  and 
Hawaii. 

The  remainder  of  the  signal  corps  at  large  is  organized  into 
depot  companies,  carrying  on  their  rolls  all  men  stationed  in  Alaska, 
at  the  schools  for  enlisted  men  at  Fort  Leavenworth  and  Fort  Wood, 
the  supply  depots,  radio  operators  on  transports,  and  all  detached 
soldiers  at  stations  in  the  United  States,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philip- 
pines. 

The  strength  of  the  commissioned  personnel  of  both  field  com- 
panies and  telegraph  companies  is  shown  in  orders  as  1  captain  and 
3  first  lieutenants  each — a  total  of  6  captains  and  18  first  lieutenants 
for  the  6  companies.  There  are  at  present  assigned  to  these  companies 
6  captains  and  7  first  lieutenants,  the  services  of  the  other  lieutenants 
being  required  at  the  Army  Signal  School,  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. ; 
on  the  Washington-Alaska  Military  Cable  and  Telegraph  System, 
and  on  duty  as  property  officers  at  depots,  etc. 

Under  existing  regulations  a  field  company  consists  of  4  officers 
and  96  men,  divided  into  six  sections,  four  of  which  are  wire  sections 
provided  with  equipment  for  laying  field  wire  for  buzzer  and  tele- 
phone communications,  and  two  sections  equipped  with  field  radio 
pack  sets,  designed  particularly  for  maintaining  communication  be- 
tween divisional  headquarters  and  the  divisional  cavalry.  A  tele- 
graph company  consists  of  4  officers  and  139  men,  divided  into  six  sec- 
tions, three  of  which  are  telephone  sections  and  three  telegraph 
sections.  This  company  is  intended  for  service  in  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  semipermanent  telegraph  and  telephone  systems. 

The  Tables  of  Organization,  1914,  also  provide  for  the  enlarge- 
ments of  these  units  to  field  battalions  and  telegraph  battalions,  re- 
spectively, in  time  of  war,  and  it  is  believed  that  such  a  reorganiza- 
tion of  existing  companies  and  telegraph  companies  to  be  organized 
would  be  imperative  under  war  conditions. 

,  A  field  battalion  is  indispensable  to  a  division  or  an  approximate 
unit.  Consisting  of  1  wire  company,  1  radio  company,  and  1  outpost 
company  it  is  prepared  under  all  conditions  to  furnish  the  communica- 
tion that  knits  the  division  into  a  whole. 

The  wire  company,  as  now  proposed,  is  divided  into  four  sections, 
each  equipped  for  laying  field  wire  in  establishing  buzzer  communi- 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  53 

cations,  with  two  extra  reel  carts  in  reserve.  This  organization  con- 
tains 3  officers  and  75  men.  The  radio  company  is  organized  into 
four  sections,  two  of  these  being  pack  radio  sections  and  two  wagon 
radio  sections,  with  3  officers  and  75  men.  The  outpost  company  is 
divided  into  four  platoons,  .each  equipped  to  supply  the  necessary 
interior  communication  within  a  brigade.  This  organization  contains 
5  officers  and  75  men.  The  field  battalion  is  commanded  by  a  major, 
and  the  headquarters  and  supply  detachment  contain  2  officers  (includ- 
ing the  major  commanding)  and  13  men. 

The  main  difference  between  the  former  organizations  and  that 
provided  in  the  present  tables  is  in  the  separation  of  the  radio 
organizations  from  the  wire  organizations  and  the  addition  of  the 
outpost  company.  It  is  believed  that  the  independence  of  function 
thus  introduced  will  serve  to  emphasize  even  more  strongly  the  useful 
part  which  each  may  play  in  the  peculiar  fields  to  which  it  is  adapted, 
and  by  the  specialization  thus  made  possible  to  train  the  officers  and 
men  of  each  organization  to  greater  efficiency,  each  in  his  own  line  of 
work. 

The  telegraph  battalion  is  charged  with  one  of  two  duties — it  may 
maintain  service  between  the  interior  and  the  field  army  or  connect 
the  headquarters  of  the  field  army  with  its  component  parts.  The 
first  of  these  duties  can  be  performed  by  a  battalion  assembled  from 
the  trained  personnel  of  the  signal  corps  serving  in  interior  posts. 

The  second  duty  requires  a  unit  with  special  equipment,  which 
should  always  be  maintained  as  such.  In  operations  involving  the 
occupation  of  territory  organizations  of  this  kind  will  prove  of  great 
value.  They  are  equipped  for  the  construction  of  the  lines  of  infor- 
mation required  for  such  work,  and  can  furnish  service  which  the 
field  battalions  could  not  supply  on  account  of  their  being  equipped 
with  only  the  very  portable  and  light  material  required  for  combat 
lines. 

Two  telegraph  companies  are  included  in  a  telegraph  battalion. 
Each  is  organized  into  three  telegraph  and  three  telephone  sections 
and  includes  4  officers  and  139  men.  The  battalion  is  commanded 
by  a  major,  and  the  headquarters  and  supply  detachment  contain  2 
officers  and  5  men. 


54 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 


However,  the  enlargement  to  battalions  of  the  companies  now 
organized  would  require  the  following  personnel : 

Majors (3 

Captains 17 

First  lieutenants 53 

Enlisted  men 1,  473 

Such  a  personnel  would  include  every  major  of  the  signal  corps 
at  large,  all  captains  but  1,  all  lieutenants  with  a  deficiency  of  35  in 
this  grade,  and  all  of  the  enlisted  personnel  allowed  by  law  with  a 
deficiency  of  261.  It  is  evident  that  such  a  reorganization  would 
require  the  abandonment  by  the  signal  corps  of  the  Washington- 
Alaska  Military  Cable  &  Telegraph  System,  the  Army  Signal  School, 
the  supervision  of  all  communications  in  interior  posts,  all  special 
duty,  such  as  with  radio  stations  and  tractors  and  for  research  work, 
and  the  reduction  of  depots  to  one  or  two. 

The  maintenance  of  the  Washington- Alaska  Military  Cable  & 
Telegraph  System,  now  incumbent  on  the  signal  corps,  is  necessary 
until  further  disposition  of  this  service  can  be  made;  the  Army 
Signal  School,  as  a  training  school  for  officers  and  men,  is  vital  to 
the  signal  corps;  and  the  other  work  on  which  detachments  from 
depot  companies  are  now  engaged  is  no  less  important.  To  main- 
tain these  activities  with  the  smallest  efficient  personnel  and  yet 
equip  the  battalions  called  for  by  the  Tables  of  Organization  would 
necessitate  an  increase  over  the  strength  allowed  the  signal  corps  by 
law,  as  follows: 


Majors 6 

Captains 11 

First  lieutenants 4G 

Master  signal  electricians 23 

I*irse-class  sergeants-1 69 


Sergeants 85 

Corporals 140 

First-class  privates 435 

Privates 141 

Cooks  _.  22 


AVIATION  SECTION  OF  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS. 

present  organization  of  the  aviation  section  of  the  signal 
corps  consists  of  one  aero  squadron ;  a  school  detachment  stationed  at 
the  aviation  school  at  San  Diego,  Cal. ;  and  a  detachment  on  duty  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  It  is  proposed  to  organize  as  soon  as  practi- 


THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  55 

cable  three  additional  aero  companies  for  duty  in  the  Philippines, 
Hawaii,  and  the  Canal  Zone.  The  personnel  for  the  company  desig- 
nated for  the  Philippines  is  now  at  San  Diego,  and  it  will  be  sent  to 
Manila  at  the  close  of  the  typhoon  season  of  the  present  year. 

Under  existing  regulations  an  aero  squadron  is  composed  of 
squadron  headquarters  and  three  aero  companies.  The  personnel  of 
squadron  headquarters  consists  of  1  major,  commanding;  1  first  lieu- 
tenant, for  duty  as  adjutant  and  quartermaster;  2  master  signal  elec- 
tricians ;  2  first-class  sergeants ;  6  corporals  and  2  first-class  privates. 
The  personnel  of  an  aero  company  consists  of  1  captain,  commanding ; 

5  aviators,  first  lieutenants;  1  master  signal  electrician;  2  first-class 
sergeants ;  5  sergeants ;  9  corporals ;  2  cooks ;  14  first-lass  privates ;  and 

6  privates.    The  transportation  for  the  squadron  consists  of  3  auto 
trucks,  1  machine-shop  tractor,  1  tank  tractor,  and  4  motor  cycles, 
while  the  material  and  transportation  for  each  company  comprises  4 
aeroplanes,  5  auto  trucks,  and  1  motor  cycle. 


DBSIKED  OBGANIZATION. 


57 


DESIRED   ORGANIZATION. 

The  table  given  below  shows  in  detail  what  is  considered  to  be  the 
proper  organization  of  signal  troops  for  an  army  consisting  of  seven 
divisions  and  two  field  armies,  as  well  as  the  signal  corps  personnel 
required  for  the  service  of  the  interior.  The  latter  troops  are  neces- 
sary regardless  of  the  size  of  the  army  or  the  number  of  its  tactical 
divisions,  but  should  the  number  of  divisions  be  increased  or  de- 
creased, the  proportion  of  signal  troops  required  for  duty  with  these 
divisions  should  be  added  to  or  taken  from  accordingly. 

It  is  proposed  that  the  organization  of  a  field  battalion  shall  be  the 
same  during  peace  as  in  war,  and  that  such  a  battalion  shall  consist  of 
three  companies,  as  follows :  A  wire  company,  containing  1  captain,  2 
first  lieutenants,  and  75  enlisted  men ;  a  radio  company,  containing  1 
captain,  2  first  lieutenants,  and  75  enlisted  men,  and  an  outpost  com- 
pany, containing  1  captain,  4  first  lieutenants,  and  75  enlisted  men. 
The  battalion  would  be  commanded  by  a  major,  with  a  first  lieutenant 
as  battalion  adjutant  and  quartermaster,  and  an  enlisted  headquarters 
detachment  of  13  men,  making  in  all  for  the  personnel  of  the  bat- 
talion, 13  officers  and  238  enlisted  men. 

The  commissioned  and  enlisted  personnel  assigned  to  each  of  these 
companies  has  been  determined  from  considerations  as  follows: 

The  wire  company  consists  of  four  wire  sections  to  provide  for  the 
four  fundamental  combat  lines  to  the  brigades. 

The  radio  company  has  four  pack  radio  sections  and  one  wheel 
radio  set,  the  former  to  provide  constant  communication  with  the 
divisional  cavalry,  supply  trains,  and  for  other  necessary  communi- 
cation where  the  laying  of  wire  is  impracticable,  the  wheel  set  for 
communication  with  other  divisions,  field-army  headquarters,  and 
base. 

The  outpost  company  has  four  platoons,  one  platoon  to  each  bri- 
gade, for  the  necessary  interior  communication  within  the  brigade. 

The  lines  of  information  of  the  field  army  are  served  with  tele- 
graph battalions  for  information  to  the  rear  and  with  field  bat- 
talions forward  to  the  division. 


60 


THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 


The  telegraph  battalion  should  have  the  same  organization  in  peace 
as  in  war  and  should,  as  now  organized  at  war  strength,  consist  of 
two  companies.  It  will  provide  all  necessary  camp  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone installation  in  the  field  army  and  supply  it  with  lines  of  infor- 
mation toward  the  base.  For  this  purpose  the  companies  are  organ- 
ized into  telegraph  and  telephone  sections. 

Proper  organization  of  the  signal  corps  for  a  regular  army  consisting  of  the 
over-seas  garrisons,  four  tactical  divisions,  the  coast  artillery,  and  auxiliary 
troops. 

SIGNAL  CORPS,  LESS  AVIATION  SECTION. 


•a  . 

.4, 

1 

|| 

•3 

CO 

1 

1 

1 

C3  O 

— 

a 

b/} 

J> 

. 

«rt 

5 

j 

C3  CO 

^ 

& 

S 

Si 

« 

I 

S 

1 

•55'd 

i 

a 

1 

1 

i 

1 

f! 

§ 

a 

| 

1 

Pi 

C3 

1 

I 

S 
1 
s 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

MOBILE  ARMY. 

9  field  battalions  

9 

?7 

81 

?7 

144 

225 

369 

54 

1,080 

243 

2,142 

2  telegraph  batt  ilions 

0 

4 

16 

12 

42 

66 

92 

g 

2GO 

86 

566 

Chief  signal  officers  of 

divisi  )us  (pnpised) 

7 

Chief  signal  officers  of 

two  field  armies 

9 

ALASKA. 

Washington  -A  1  a  s  k  a 

military    cable   and 

telegraph  system 

1 

1 

3 

8 

28 

30 

33 

5 

112 

34 

250* 

SERVICE   OF  THE  INTE- 

RIOR. 

_ 

0 

1 

9 

.  .  .  * 

1 

1 

Department  signal  offi- 

cers, i  icludiig  Phil- 

ippi  leand  Hawaiian 

2 

3 

Supply   den  its,  cable 

baats,    Fort    Wood, 

and  assistant  at  New 

Y<  r!< 

5 

1 

Enlisted  men  fcr  de- 

9 

33 

36 

39 

6 

135 

42 

soa 

Arm  v  signal  schorl  and 

11 

12 

13 

2 

45 

14 

100 

Total  

i 

4 

12 

15 

40 

101 

59 

258 

309 

546 

75 

1,632 

419 

3,358 

THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 


61 


Proper  organization  of  the  signal  corps  for  a  regular  army,  etc. — Continued. 

AVIATION  SECTION. 


6 

3 

-si 

.2 

d 

03* 

•d 

C 

n 

1 

2 

% 

8 

I 

•s 

1 

o 
1 

0 

| 

p 

§ 

a 

•a 

1 

ft 

-S 

x 

£ 

§ 

g 

•3 

•2 

o 

o 

•s 

1 

"1 

1 

J 

S 

1 

.1 

§ 

"5 

0 

5 

1 

"o 

I 

1 

g> 

o 
a 
g 

1 

1 

1 

« 

r-> 

M 

S 

£ 

EH 

a 

GQ 

0 

w 

« 

^ 

H   . 

Overseas  garrisons: 
Philippines 

1  aero  squadron 

1 

16 

5 

8 

33 

6 

44 

18 

129 

Hawaii 

do 

0 

16 

6 

g 

15 

6 

44 

18 

129 

Panama  Canal  Zone 

.do                .     .. 

^ 

•} 

16 

?0 

5 

8 

15 

33 

6 

44 

18 

129 

In  the  United  States: 
Mobile  army  — 
4  divisions 

4  aero  squadrons 

4 

19 

64 

SO 

?0 

31? 

60 

„ 

176 

7? 

516 

1 

1 

tration. 

-A  viation  school 

D  etachment 

"I 

'-{ 

9 

6 

8 

6 

12 

18 

2 

V4 

12 

77 

Total    proposed 

i 

1 

g 

24 

114 

148 

38 

6? 

117 

249 

44 

33? 

138 

980 

aviation  s  e  c  - 

tion. 

The  additional  officers  would  be  procured  by  promotion  and  de- 
tail, under  the  provisions  of  section  26  of  the  act  of  February  2, 1901, 
and  in  general  the  method  of  selection  in  force  in  the  ordnance  de- 
partment should  be  followed. 

The  additional  enlisted  strength  would  be  procured  by  promotion 
and  enlistment. 

AVIATION    SECTION. 

The  organization  of  the  aviation  units  in  the  foreign  armies  sug- 
gests a  squadron  of  12  machines  as  the  basis  for  our  organization,  8 
of  these  machines  to  be  of  the  reconnaissance  type  and  2  each  of  the 
pursuit  and  combat  type.  In  case  the  army  remains  at  its  present 
authorized  strength,  the  personnel  of  the  aviation  section  should  be 
increased  to  give  the  sufficient  personnel  to  supply  seven  aero  squad- 
rons, one  for  each  of  the  four  tactical  divisions  organized  for  duty  in 
the  United  States,  three  for  overseas  garrisons,  and  a  detachment  for 
duty  at  the  aviation  school.  It  is  to  be  pointed  out  that  there  is  need 
for  at  least  one  squadron  for  reconnaissance  work  in  each  of  the  three 


62  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFOJRMATIOX. 

coast  artillery  districts  in  this  country,  and  that  a  sufficient  number  of 
aeroplanes  should  be  provided  for  fire  direction  and  control  of  the 
field  artillery  on  the  basis  of  one  aeroplane  per  battery,  with  one  in 
reserve,  or,  in  round  numbers,  six  areo  squadrons  for  this  arm.  This 
calls  for  the  addition  of  nine  squadrons  to  those  above  mentioned. 

While  the  above-mentioned  force  will  give  a  personnel  for  a  flying 
establishment  in  time  of  peace,  a  much  greater  number  of  officers 
and  men  will  be  required  in  time  of  actual  hostilities.  As  a  step 
toward  getting  the  flying  men  necessary  to  meet  war  conditions,  an 
aviation  reserve  corps  should  be  created  including  citizen  aviators, 
mechanics,  and  constructors  of  aircraft.  The  officers  of  the  aviation 
reserve  corps  should  be  such  qualified  pilots  of  American  citizenship 
as  shall  have  demonstrated  their  fitness  for  the  aviation  service  under 
regulations  to  be  established  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  should  be 
subject  to  call  whenever  hostilities  are  imminent.  On  entering  the 
corps,  these  officers  should  agree  to  serve  at  least  three  weeks  in  each 
year  at  one  of  the  aviation  stations  in  the  country,  and  while  so  serv- 
ing should  receive  the  pay  and  allowances  of  a  first  lieutenant.  The 
men  should  be  enrolled  as  members  of  definite  organizations  of  the 
aviation  reserve  corps,  and  while  so  enrolled  and  while  actually  so 
engaged  or  employed  in  business  connected  with  the  operation  or  man- 
ufacture of  aircraft  or  certain  aircraft  materials,  should  be  given  pay 
upon  a  peace  basis.  Members  of  the  aviation  reserve  corps  should  be 
subject  to  call  to  aviation  service,  and  while  on  such  service  should 
receive  the  same  pay  per  grade  as  in  the  regular  army.  Organizations 
of  the  aviation  reserve  corps  should  conform  to  similar  organizations 
in  the  regular  army. 

It  is  believed  that  the  personnel  needed  for  such  an  organization  is 
available  in  the  country.  Although  there  are  very  few  skillful  cross- 
country fliers  among  the  civilian  pilots  in  the  United  States,  there  is 
undoubtedly  material  among  them  that  could  be  utilized  at  the  out- 
break of  hostilities.  The  methods  of  recruiting  and  officering  such 
troops  would  be  entirely  dependent  on  the  methods  adopted  by  the 
line  of  the  army. 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  AND  GENERAL  COAST 

DEFENSE. 


THE  SIGNAL  CORPS  AND  GENERAL  COAST  DEFENSE. 

In  the  following  outline  of  the  duties  of  a  signal  corps  in  coast 
defense,  duties  which  are  made  possible  chiefly  by  air  craft  and  by 
modern  lines  of  military  information,  much  attention  is  given  to  the 
land  defense  by  mobile  troops  and  to  the  coast  patrol.  These  sub- 
jects are  interesting  in  themselves  and  new  in  their  present  applica- 
tion and  aspects,  and  a  comprehensive  survey  of  them  is  at  least 
helpful,  if  not  necessary,  in  estimating  the  scope  and  value  of  sys- 
tems of  information  communications  in  the  coast  defense  for  the 
country. 

The  United  States,  unlike  other  great  nations  of  the  world,  has 
never  established,  and  may  never  need  to  establish,  permanent  for- 
tifications on  the  land  frontiers,  since  the  real  frontiers  are  the 
seas.  But  even  without  the  obligation  of  defense  against  neighbors 
to  the  north  and  south,  the  vast  extent  of  the  coast  imposes  upon 
the  country  a  duty  which  can  but  grow  greater  as  population  and 
wealth  advance  and  as  the  power  and  number  of  commercial  ships 
and  of  navies  increase.  Types,  speed,  and  size  of  ships  are  bring- 
ing alien  shores  yearly  into  more  intimate  relations  and  are  making 
sea  attack  more  easy,  more  swift,  and  more  dangerous  than  ever 
before.  The  weight  and  range  of  floating  batteries,  the  number  and 
speed  of  merchant  vessels  and  their  great  transporting  power,  the 
swarms  of  rapid  and  dependable  auxiliaries,  the  submarine,  the  aero- 
plane, and  the  dirigible,  leave  all  but  strongly  protected  coasts  with- 
out the  chance  of  defense  in  war,  except  by  airships  and  submarines 
and  of  course  the  mobile  army,  and  fixed  defenses  in  addition  to  a  navy 
whose  duty  at  the  outset  may  call  it  into  distant  seas.  No  better  in- 
stance of  this  kind  can  be  cited  than  the  attacks  on  the  English  coast 
about  Scarborough,  where  coast  defense  was  nonexistent  and  the  navy 
was  absent.  The  probability  of  the  .absence  of  the  navy  at  the  very 
moment  when  coast  protection  becomes  most  necessary  is  so  strong 
as  to  amount  to  a  certainty  with  a  powerful  and  aggressive  home 
14689—15 5  65 


66  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

fleet,  a  fact  that  is  well  pointed  out  in  a  passage  of  ex-President 
Roosevelt's  message  to  Congress,  in  which  he  says : 

Parrying  never  yet  won  a  fight.  It  can  only  be  won  by  hard  hitting,  and  an 
aggressive  seagoing  navy  alone  can  do  this  hard  hitting  of  the  offensive  type. 
But  the  forts  and  the  like  are  necessary,  so  that  the  navy  may  be  foot-loose. 
In  time  of  war  there  is  sure  to  be  demand,  under  pressure  of  fright,  for  the 
ships  to  be  scattered  so  as  to  defend  all  kinds  of  ports.  Under  penalty  of  ter- 
rible disaster  this  demand  must  be  refused.  The  ships  must  be  kept  together 
and  their  objective  made  the  enemy's  fleet.  If  fortifications  are  sufficiently 
strong,  no  modern  navy  will  venture  to  attack  them  so  long  as  the  foe  has  in 
existence  a  hostile  navy  of  anything  like  the  same  size  or  efficiency.  But 
unless  there  exists  such  a  navy,  then  the  fortifications  are  powerless  by  them- 
selves to  secure  the  victory. 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  if  to  the  fortifications  mentioned  there 
are  added  airships,  submarines,  and  an  adequate  mobile  force,  then, 
indeed,  the  plea  above  quoted,  though  primarily  for  the  navy,  stands 
as  well  for  efficient  coast  protection. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  coast  defense  can  not  be  improvised 
and  that  preparation  for  national  safety  can  not  be  delayed  until 
hostilities  begin,  not  even  until  the  cloud  no  bigger  than  a  man's 
hand  appears  upon  the  horizon.  Plans  must  have  been  perfected 
long  before  the  country  is  threatened,  the  fixed  defenses  completed, 
and  the  lines  of  information  made  ready;  the  mobile  armies  and 
auxiliaries  prepared.  All  this  must  be  done  during  the  leisure  of 
peace,  and  the  work  must  cover  all  zones  of  danger,  since  no  man 
may  know  when  or  where  the  blow  will  fall.  If  the  work  of  general 
defense  is  stupendous,  as  it  must  be  in  order  to  be  effective,  this  fact 
is  but  one  more,  and  the  most  cogent  of  all  reasons  for  its  timely 
undertaking. 

It  is  not,  however,  the  object  of  the  writer  to  enter  here  upon  a 
thorough  consideration  of  the  great  question  of  national  coast  de- 
fense— which  must  be  left  to  abler  minds — but  rather  to  consider  it 
in  such  detail  only  as  may  serve  to  point  out  its  relation  as  a  whole 
to  sources  and  lines  of  information  upon  which  alone  intelligent 
action  of  the  system  can  be  based ;  that  is  to  say,  to  outline  the  lines 
of  signal  communication  which  must  form  the  nerves  of  any  ade- 
quate system  of  coast  security  in  war.  A  general  survey  of  the 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  67 

field  seems  necessary  before  the  value  of  these  lines  and  of  the  work 
of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  in  connection  with  the  coast  defense 
can  be  estimated  and  understood. 

Regarding  the  defense  of  the  seaboard  of  the  United  States,  it  ap- 
pears clear  in  retrospect  that  the  inertia  which  for  years  followed  the 
close  of  the  civil  war  and  the  later  days  of  tranquillity  prevented 
the  making  by  the  nation  of  any  serious  effort  to  protect  the  coasts 
of  the  country  from  foreign  attack  until  some  thirty  years  ago 
when  indifference  began  to  give  way  to  the  demand  for  an  efficient 
navy.  The  growth  of  the  navy  in  turn  emphasized  the  need  of  pro- 
tected harbors  and  of  permanent  defenses;  and  as  the  fortifications 
required  soldiers  to  man  them  attention  was  at  last  directed  more  and 
more  strongly  to  the  personnel  of  the  defense.  At  last  the  coast  artil- 
lery was  given  a  working,  if,  still  a  skeleton,  organization;  efficient 
armament  and  satisfactory  equipment  were  added;  systems  of  fire 
control  and  direction  were  devised  and  at  least  partial  lines  of  infor- 
mation installed.  Finally  it  began  to  be  understood,  though  dimly 
at  first,  that  defenses  themselves  must  be  defended ;  that  the  eyes  and 
the  hands  of  men  must  assist  in  coast  protection  and  that  two  impor- 
tant factors  of  the  defense,  namely,  the  coast  patrol  and  the  mobile 
army  must  form  a  front  for  any  adequate  system  of  protection. 

For  convenience  in  considering  what  follows,  it  is  assumed  that  in 
war  the  coast  defense,  which  combines  the  military  and  naval  disposi- 
tions and  operations  necessary  to  resist  attack  on  any  part  of  the  coast 
line,  may  be  divided  into  six  factors,  each  related  to  the  other  in  oper- 
ation and  all  dependent  upon  coordination  of  action  for  the  full  acces- 
sion of  their  value.    These  are,  first,  the  fixed  and  floating  defenses; 
of  the  artillery,  consisting  of  the  armaments,  submarine  defenses, 
and  material,  coast  and  scout  ships,  and  to  some  extent  air  craft,, 
torpedo,  submarine,  patrol,  and  picket  boats;  the  personnel,  includ- 
ing all  troops  assigned  to  duty  in  connection  with  the  fixed  defenses;. 
Second,  the  general  defense  troops  of  the  regular  or  volunteer  army, 
or  of  the  organized  militia,  not  including  the  supports  of  fixed  posi- 
tions.   Third,  the  air  service,  including  the  necessary  aero  squadrons 
of  various  types,  with  their  auxiliary  tractors  and  the  dirigible  when 
used  for  coast  patrol  and  defense.    Fourth,  the  coast  patrol,  including 


68  THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

the  coast  guard.  Fifth,  the  service  of  the  lines  of  information ;  that 
is,  the  signal  corps  of  the  army.  Sixth,  the  navy,  placed  last  as  having 
little  to  do  with  the  subject  of  this  paper. 

Although  each  of  the  factors  given  above  supplements  the  others, 
it  is  evident  that  the  one  which  binds  them  all  into  a  working  whole, 
and  without  which  the  other  five  will  have  rather  less  cohesion  and 
connection  than  so  many  reeds  shaken  by  the  wind,  is  that  of  the  sig- 
nal corps  in  control  of  the  lines  of  information  and  the  service  of  air 
craft. 

To  arrive  at  a  proper  understanding  of  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  lines  of  information  necessary  to  keep  in  brain  touch  the  ele- 
ments of  the  defense  of  a  great  seaboard  like  our  own,  it  will  be  well 
to  first  outline  the  general  scope  of  the  defense  and  to  indicate  the  part 
that  will  be  played  by  the  other  factors  in  war  so  far  as  it  may  be 
practicable  to  do  so. 

The  first  of  the  factors  of  defense  to  be  considered  is  that  of  the 
fortified  positions. 

FORTIFIED  POSITIONS. 
PERMANENT    COAST    OK    HAKBOR    DEFENSES. 

It  may  be  said,  in  general  terms,  that  the  permanent  defense  of  a 
coast  or  harbor  consists  in  the  adequate  protection  of  a  number  of 
distinct  positions  which  from  their  importance  to  the  country  or 
value  to  the  enemy  must  be  guarded  against  injury,  occupation,  or 
capture.  Such  positions  are  either  actually  or  potentially  guarded 
permanently  by  a  number  of  fixed  artillery  emplacements,  the  fight- 
ing or  tactical  units  of  which  constitute  a  chain  of  command.  The 
artillery  defense  as  a  whole  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  tactical  areas, 
each  measurably  complete  and  independent  in  itself,  but  separated 
usually  by  considerable  distances  of  coast  from  the  others,  and  the 
whole  kept  in  touch  by  lines  of  information,  usually  commercial, 
which  form  a  chain  encircling  the  country. 

On  the  coasts  of  the  United  States  there  are  81  separate  forts  where 
modern  defenses  are  installed  or  are  in  process  of  installation;  in 
the  Philippines  there  are  6 ;  in  Hawaii,  4 ;  in  the  Canal  Zone,  5 ;  a 
total  of  96.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in  the  event  of  a  serious 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  69 

war  the  fixed  defenses  alone  will  require  a  vast  number  of  lines  of 
information  and,  further,  that  for  the  purpose  of  control  of  its  vast 
coast  line  these  positions  must  be  kept  in  communication  not  only 
with  great  centers  of  population  and  with  the  capital  of  the  country 
but  with  each  other,  and  that  under  certain  probable  conditions  of 
war  the  chain  of  defense  from  Portland  to  Galveston,  from  San 
Diego  to  Puget  Sound,  or  perhaps  from  Quoddy  Head  to  the  Straits 
of  Fuca,  must  be  kept  in  constant  and  immediate  touch  by  telegraph, 
telephone,  or  radio.  This,  of  course,  will  be  largely  a  problem  for 
the  existing  commercial  lines  to  solve. 

But  without  further  discussing  the  lines  of  information  needed 
to  keep  in  touch  these  many  positions,  it  becomes  necessary  here  to 
consider  the  mobile  army  of  coast  defense. 

THE  MOBILE  ARMY  OF  COAST  DEFENSE. 

It  is  probably  evident  to  all  who  have  considered  the  matter  that 
the  most,  necessary  factor  of  the  land  defense  of  the  coast  is  the 
mobile  army,  together  with  its  auxiliaries.  It  is  therefore  unneces- 
sary in  this  place  to  insist  upon  the  importance  of  an  adequate 
mobile  army  for  the  defense  of  the  country.  Even  to  the  unthink- 
ing it  must  be  obvious  that  without  such  forces  there  can  be  no  real 
and  substantial  protection  for  the  coasts,  except  at  those  positions 
which  have  been  selected  beforehand  for  fortification,  which  of 
necessity  will  be  few  in  number.  Even  if  these  fixed  defenses 
could  stand  alone,  which  they  can  not  do,  they  will  of  necessity 
form  but  a  partial  and  interrupted  protection  to  an  extended  sea- 
board and  will  leave  open  to  attack  many  important  towns,  service- 
able harbors,  and  landing  places  that  may  be  used  by  an  enemy 
as  a  base  or  as  coaling  and  supply  stations.  The  fortified  po- 
sitions are  really  harbor  defenses  only.  It  is  clear  also  that 
a  country  offering  to  attack  some  5, TOO  miles  of  coast  line,  in- 
dented with  innumerable  minor  harbors  and  anchorages  and  dotted 
with  important  towns  that  invite  destruction,  can  not  protect  all  its 
vulnerable  points  by  costly  and  extensive  armaments,  and,  as  a  con- 
sequence, that  the  minor  positions  must  be  otherwise  defended  or  left 


70  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

to  shift  for  themselves.  While  the  defending  navy  remains  within 
reasonable  distance  of  the  coast  the  minor  positions  will  be  free  from 
danger,  but,  as  has  been  said,  a  navy,  if  efficient,  will  not  remain  at 
home;  and  it  follows  that  in  a  serious  war  protection  for  the  less 
important  positions  must  fall  to  the  care  of  such  of  the  floating  de- 
fenses as  may  be  withheld  from  distant  seas;  to  the  troops  of  the 
mobile  army,  aided  by  such  land  batteries  as  can  be  hastily  constructed 
and  armed;  to  the  submarine  and  to  the  air  craft.  Such  partial 
defenses  may  not  prevent  attack  and  local  injury,  but  they  can,  at 
least,  prevent  destruction  and  an  occupation  that  may  provide  the 
enemy  with  a  naval  base  and  perhaps  threaten  invasion  of  the 
country  at  large.  Protection  against  this  danger  rests  with  the 
mobile  army  alone  once  a  foothold  has  been  established  on  our  coast. 

The  need  of  a  mobile  army  in  coast  defense  is  not,  however,  con- 
fined to  the  protection  of  the  lesser  positions  and  harbors  unprovided 
with  effective  fortifications  and  armament,  for  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  coast  fortifications  of  to-day,  unlike  the  permanent  works 
of  an  earlier  time,  look  only  toward  the  sea,  and  of  themselves  are 
helpless  against  land  attack;  hence  they  must  be  protected  at  flank 
and  rear  from  approach  by  hostile  troops  and  landing  parties.  In- 
deed, in  these  days  every  serious  sea  attack,  to  be  successful,  must  be 
accompanied  by  land  operations,  a  fact  well  illustrated  by  the  fall 
of  Tsingtau  and  especially  by  the  desperate  sea  fights  of  the  Dar- 
danelles and  of  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula  and  the  subsequent  land 
attacks.  It  is  evident  that  though  ships  unsupported  may  cause 
great  damage  and  even  destroy  cities  or  fortified  positions,  they  can 
produce  but  little  effect  upon  the  ultimate  result  of  a  campaign  unless 
combined  with  land  operations,  by  means  of  which  the  defense  is  not 
only  destroyed,  but  overwhelmed,  the  objective  occupied,  together 
with  the  surrounding  regions. 

It  appears,  then,  should  war  arise,  the  country  must  be  prepared 
to  prevent  throughout  the  vast  extent  of  its  seaboard  the  seizure 
and  occupation  of  any  one  of  many  important  points,  both  fortified 
and  unfortified,  and  of  all  of  its  harbors  and  landing  places  useful 
to  an  enemy.  This  implies  the  existence  of  a  mobile  force  so  placed 
and  so  large  and  effective  in  organization  as  to  insure,  on  the  one 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  71 

hand,  the  safety  of  exposed  positions  by  proper  dispositions  of  troops 
immediately  needed;  and,  on  the  other,  by  concentration  of  the  major 
part  of  these  mobile  troops  in  reserve  at  strategic  positions  of  the 
coast  or  possibly  of  the  other  frontiers  as  to  permit  the  use  of  an 
overwhelming  number  of  defense  troops  at  any  threatened  point. 

In  the  defense  by  a  mobile  army  the  plan  adopted  may  well  be 
somewhat  as  follows:  The  Atlantic,  the  Gulf,  and  the  Pacific  sea- 
boards will  be  divided  into  defensive  areas,  the  extent  and  boun- 
daries of  which  will  depend  upon  strategic,  geographical,  and  eco- 
nomic conditions.  These  areas  will  not,  as  a  rule,  be  coextensive  with 
military  departments,  since  they  depend  upon  different  conditions 
and  lie  mainly  along  the  sea,  and  will  be  controlled  by  their  own 
general  officers,  acting  presumably  under  one  chief.  In  each  area 
there  will  exist  in  war  a  mobile  force  adequate  not  only  for  its 
defense  proper — that  is,  for  land  defense  of  fixed  positions,  un- 
protected harbors,  and  other  vulnerable  points  within  the  area 
itself — but  for  service  with  other  troops  who,  upon  the  certainty  of 
hostilities,  will  be  mobilized  and  held  as  a  general  reserve.  Within 
defensive  areas  there  will  be  placed  before  the  outbreak  of  war  a 
sufficient  number  of  men  of  the  regular  army,  of  the  volunteers, 
and  of  the  organized  militia  of  the  state  or  neighboring  states  to 
form  a  nucleus  of  the  force  that  will  be  required.  In  addition  to 
the  aero  squadrons,  which  form  part  of  a  division  of  the  mobile  army, 
there  should,  of  course,  be  gathered  together  all  of  the  flying  men 
who  can  be  brought  into  service  with  the  militia  or  the  volunteers, 
and  to  them  should  be  allotted  the  duty  of  watching  the  coasts,  so 
far  as  practicable. 

It  should  be  evident  that  of  this  force  the  men  most  needed  in  the 
preliminary  work  of  the  defense  will  not  be  coast  artillerymen 
alone,  but  engineers,  and  signal  troops,  especially  of  the  aviation  sec- 
tion, since  the  first  step  in  mobilization  will  be  the  establishment  of 
lines  of  information,  of  which  soldiers  alone  should  be  in  control, 
and  the  training  of  airmen. 

No  doubt  the  men  of  the  organized  militia,  especially  those  mobil- 
ized in  seacoast  states,  will,  when  needed,  be  partially  trained  as 
regards  the  defense  of  fixed  positions,  but  it  is  believed  that  if  the 


72  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

peace  training  of  the  militia  is  to  thoroughly  fit  it  for  coast-defense 
work  in  its  several  forms  this  training  should  be  widened  in  scope  to 
embrace  not  only  the  lines  for  fire  control  but  to  include  the  duties 
of  signal  troops  in  campaign  in  the  collection  and  transmission  of  in- 
formation by  all  of  the  many  methods  that  are  employed  by  the  sig- 
nal corps  in  the  field  and  by  a  thorough  familiarity  with  aeroplanes 
and  their  use  in  reconnaissance  and  patrol  work. 

It  is  evident  that  the  mobile  troops  of  the  coast  defense  will  require 
ample  strength  in  engineer  and  signal  troops,  field  and  horse  ar- 
tillery, and  a  due  proportion  of  cavalry  to  erect  and  defend  the 
field  works  on  the  land  fronts  of  fixed  positions,  to  establish  and 
maintain  lines  of  information,  to  check  sudden  attempts  at  coast 
landing,  and  to  perform  the  duties  of  mounted  troops  in  the  field 
and  for  air  service. 

It  is  certain  that  if  so  trained  the  small  quotas  of  state  troops, 
since  they  will  be  among  the  first  sent  into  the  field,  will  be  of  the 
utmost  value  to  the  defense  at  a  time  when  the  lines  of  information — 
the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  radio  and  air  service — will  be  urgently 
needed  in  the  organization,  disposition,  and  control  of  newly  organ- 
ized levies.  The  state  troops  now  become  national  troops,  and,  to- 
gether with  the  signalmen  of  the  regular  army,  will  undertake  the 
organization  of  additional  signal  troops  from  the  volunteers. 

If  a  great  struggle  threatens  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  put  forth 
the  strength  of  the  country  by  calling  to  the  colors  the  larger  part  of 
the  mighty  reserve  available  for  national  defense,  it  is  certain  that 
the  total  number  of  men  of  the  ultimate  levy  will  be  so  enormous  that 
occasion  for  mobilization  of  the  whole  can  hardly  arise.  But  be 
this  as  it  may,  it  is  evident  at  least  that,  though  the  leve  en  masse  may 
never  be  resorted  to  in  this  country,  the  force  that  will  be  called  to 
the  national  defense  in  a  great  war  will  be  no  small  thing,  and  the 
work  of  turning  it  into  an  efficient  army  and  of  supplying  it  with 
an  adequate  force  of  technical  troops  properly  equipped  for  the  field 
will  require  the  best  efforts  of  every  trained  man  of  the  service. 

There  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that  the  general  levies  will  at 
first  be  weak  in  these  very  arms,  since  they  are  of  necessity  almost 
nonexistent  with  the  organized  militia  of  many  of  the  states  in  ordi- 


THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFOBMATION.  73 

nary  times.  No  doubt  the  main  reliance  must  be  placed  upon  the  in- 
fantry of  the  organized  militia  and  volunteers,  but  this,  too,  in  the 
early  days  of  a  struggle  will  be  weak  in  transport,  staff,  quarter- 
master, and  ordnance  departments,  and  lack  of  the  assistance  of 
technical  troops,  a  condition  that  will  hamper  the  defense,  give  to 
the  troops  little  mobility,  and  compel  them  to  remain  tied  to  their 
base  or  semipermanent  camps.  This  condition  will  doubtless  be 
corrected  as  time  goes  on,  but  its  existence  at  first  will  multiply  the 
lines  of  information  and  the  duties  of  signal  troops.  It  is  certain 
therefore  that  the  communications  by  which  the  first  line  and  the 
reserves  will  be  linked  together  and  to  the  permanent  works  should 
from  the  early  efforts  at  concentration  be  ample  and  effective,  and 
so  continue,  for  without  them  the  whole  army  of  the  defense  will 
become  a  mere  aggregation  of  inert  units. 

As  has  been  said,  a  large  proportion  of  the  mobile  troops  of  the 
coast  defense — probably  more  than  half  of  the  total — will  be  formed 
into  reserves  and  held  at  concentration  camps  or  at  positions  strategi- 
cally important,  ready  to  move  to  any  threatened  point. 

SUPPORTS. 

A  third  class  of  troops  will  be  organized  who,  if  not  large  in 
number,  are  at  least  of  vital  importance  in  coast  defense ;  they  are  the 
supports  of  artillery  positions  proper.  These  men,  placed  at  sta- 
tions suitable  to  the  defense  of  fixed  positions  against  land  attack, 
will  act  in  concert  with  the  coast  artillery,  and  be  under  the  imme- 
diate command  of  artillery  officers,  presumably  of  posts  or  districts, 
since  it  is  evident  that  they  must  be  kept  as  directly  in  touch  with 
the  officers  fighting  the  positions  as  are  the  marines  aboard  ship.  The 
supports,  no  doubt,  will  be  drawn  from  the  mobile  troops  proper  and 
be  composed  of  the  first  and  best  men  called  to  the  general  defense ; 
that  is,  of  such  troops  of  the  regular  army  as  can  be  assigned  to  the 
duty  and  of  the  flower  of  the  organized  militia.  They  will  be  made 
up  almost  entirely  of  infantry  and  field  artillery,  with  as  many 
machine-gun  batteries  as  may  be  available,  and  to  these  there  should 
be  added  a  far  larger  proportion  of  signalmen  than  is  usually  con- 
sidered necessary  for  an  army  in  the  field,  since  upon  these  men  will 


74  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

fall  the  service  of  information  not  merely  with  other  elements  of 
artillery  defense,  but  with  the  fixed  positions,  the  mobile  troops, 
coast  guard,  and  with  the  navy. 

The  lines  of  information  of  these  supporting  troops  will  be  those 
of  the  field  army.  They  will  be  mainly  dependent  upon  the  buzzer, 
aeroplane — or  perhaps  the  dirigible — the  radio,  field  telegraph  or 
telephone,  and  visual  signaling. 

From  all  that  has  been  said  it  should  appear  that  the  mobile  troops 
above  indicated  will  stretch  over  many  miles  of  country  and  operate 
under  widely  varying  conditions.  It  follows  that  even  more  than  for 
a  well-organized  army  in  campaign  the  lines  of  information  for  the, 
at  first,  somewhat  unorganized  forces  of  the  general  defense  must  be 
ample  and  widely  extended. 

Indeed,  except  in  emergencies,  these  lines  will  be  more  necessary 
in  the  early  days  of  the  defense  than  later  when  the  machine  moves 
smoothly,  but  at  all  times  the  mobile  troops,  without  an  adequate 
service  of  information,  will  have  rather  less  direction  and  mobility 
than  a  collection  of  tortoises.  Properly  laid,  the  lines  of  information 
will  not  only  form  a  network  throughout  the  defense  area  but  will 
tie  each  theater  of  operations  to  the  others  and  provide  the  entire 
army  with  the  lines  heretofore  shown  to  be  essential  in  the  field. 
Headquarters  of  the  defense  and  those  of  mobile  troops  will  be  fixed 
at  the  places  best  suited  tactically  for  the  purpose,  and  as  it  is  reason- 
ably certain  that  these  positions  will  lie  at  centers  of  commercial 
activity,  they  will  be  distant  from  the  camps  of  divisions  and  brigades 
and  still  farther  separated  from  the  smaller  commands  and  detach- 
ments, from  the  artillery  headquarters  and  from  observation  sta- 
tions and  outposts  of  coast  defense.  Yet  with  all  these  must  com- 
manding officers  of  the  mobile  forces  be  kept  in  constant  and  immedi- 
ate touch,  as  well  as  with  the  military  commanders  of  departments, 
should  the  latter  not  be  in  command  of  the  general  defense — and  with 
Washington.  In  turn,  army,  division,  and  brigade  headquarters 
must  be  kept  in  communication  with  dependent  and  outlying  com- 
mands ;  these  with  the  observation  stations  and  coast  patrol ;  and  the 
latter  given  the  power  to  communicate  readily  with  the  floating  de- 
fenses, with  artillery  districts,  and  with  ships. 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  75 

From  all  that  has  been  said  it  appears  that  for  the  mobile  coast 
army  there  will  be  needed  systems  of  information  even  more  exten- 
sive and  varied  than  is  considered  necessary  for  a  field  army  in  cam- 
paign; and  it  follows  that  the  proportion  of  signal  troops  to  line 
soldiers  in  coast  defense  should  be  increased. 

It  is  hopeless  to  suppose  that  the  signal  corps  of  the  regular 
establishment  can  ever  supply  more  than  a  leaven  for  the  mass  of 
men  needed,  especially  for  the  air  service,  or  even  that  the  militia  pos- 
sessing signal  troops  of  approved  efficiency  can  provide  more  than  the 
framework  of  the  organizations  that  will  be  required;  and  it  follows 
that  the  signal  troops  mobilized  for  war  must  be  filled  in  by  volun- 
teers, and  therefore  by  men  drawn  direct  from  civil  life.  But  excel- 
lent and  abundant  as  the  material  for  these  troops  undoubtedly  is 
among  the  men  engaged  in  the  electrical  and  mechanical  pursuits  of 
the  country,  and  from  the  few  who  have  been  trained  in  aeroplane 
work,  such  men  before  they  can  be  of  any  real  value  must  be  made  into 
soldiers.  To  accomplish  this  purpose  there  must  exist  in  peace  a 
sufficient  number  of  signal  troops  in  the  regular  army  and  in  the 
organized  militia  to  leaven  and  instruct  the  whole  body  of  volun- 
teers. The  signal  corps  of  the  army  will  never  have  the  numbers 
or  the  opportunity,  when  war  comes,  to  take  upon  itself  alone  the 
training  of  those  volunteers  and  the  assistance  of  the  organized 
militia  and  of  suitable  and  willing  men  in  civil  life  must  be  asked 
and  given.  The  training  must  be  quick  and  effective,  and  therefore 
be  performed  by  men  who  have  themselves  been  drilled  in  peace  in 
the  methods  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army.  Unfortunately, 
trained  militiamen  and  airmen  are  at  present  few  and  confined  to 
a  small  number  of  states,  and,  even  where  signal  organizations  exist, 
they  are  not  always  given,  be  it  said  without  disparagement  of  the 
troops  themselves,  the  strength  in  numbers,  the  equipment,  nor,  up 
to  now,  the  training  that  will  make  them  immediately  valuable  in 
coast  defense  on  the  outbreak  of  war.  This  condition  should  be 
changed,  for  it  needs  no  argument  to  prove  the  plain  fact  that  in 
war  the  lines  of  information,  both  military  and  commercial,  in  so  far 
as  the  latter  relate  to  the  general  defense  and  the  air  service,  must 
be  controlled  and  operated  by  soldiers,  and  that  the  number  of  men 


76  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

needed  for  the  purpose  will  be  far  larger  than  can  be  supplied  by 
any  probable  increase  of  the  regular  establishment.  It  follows  that 
the  military  authorities  of  the  states,  especially  those  chiefly  con- 
cerned in  coast  defense,  should  be  asked  not  merely  to  do  more  than 
they  have  done  to  increase  or  create  signal  corps  that  will  be  of  real 
service  in  war,  but  to  encourage  these  troops  to  take  each  year  their 
full  share  of  instruction  in  the  service  of  the  lines  of  information  of 
the  coast  defense.  From  all  this  it  is  evident  that  a  general  reserve 
of  telegraph,  aero,  telephone,  and  especially  of  flying  men  should  be 
created  at  once,  for  the  service  of  information  in  war. 

SERVICE  OF  AIR  CRAFT  IN  COAST  DEFENSE. 

A  third  and  very  important  factor  in  coast  defense  is  the  service 
of  air  craft,  and  it  is  becoming  increasingly  evident  that  in  addition 
to  lines  of  information  laid  or  worked  on  land,  there  must  now  be 
recognized  and  carefully  considered  the  part,  and  it  promises  to  be 
tremendous,  that  will  hereafter  be  played  in  coast  defense  and  ob- 
servation by  aerial  fleets.  It  is  not  intended  here  to  speak  of  the 
aeroplane  merely,  but  to  suggest  also  the  potential  value  of  the  lighter  - 
than-air  craft,  whose  special  use  is  now  thought  to  be  in  scouting  or 
reconnaissance  work,  which  means,  of  course,  its  use  as  a  coast  patrol. 
Divided  into  areas  or  districts  patrolled  by  dirigibles  or  aeroplanes, 
all  communicating  back  to  central  stations  and  maneuvering  far  out 
to  sea,  such  scouts  should  make  impossible  a  hidden  approach  or  sur- 
prise attack  by  an  enemy.  The  captive  balloon  wrould  also  find  a  use- 
ful place  in  service  of  this  kind.  But  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived 
to  indicate  definitely  what  form  the  defense  air  service  will  take.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  coasts  of  the  country  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions or  areas  each  of  which  should  contain  an  aerodrome  or  center 
from  which  scouting  land  and  sea  planes  could  operate  at  sea  and  send 
reports  by  radio,  if  satisfactorily  installed,  to  the  central  stations  re- 
garding the  movements  of  enemies'  or  friendly  ships. 

Whether  this  air  patrol  shall  eventually  be  installed  and  conducted 
by  the  army,  the  navy,  or  the  coast  guard  is  undecided,  and  in  the 
present  condition  of  affairs  is  not  a  matter  requiring  consideration 
here.  There  is  involved,  however,  a  vast  and  important  field  of  signal 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  77 

corps  work,  not  alone  in  this  aviation  service,  but  in  the  transmission 
by  wire,  radio,  or  otherwise  news  received  from  air  craft  at  central 
stations,  often  located  at  isolated  points,  to  the  proper  headquarters. 

The  fourth  factor  of  the  coast  defense,  and  that  one  which  depends 
for  its  value,  if  possible,  even  more  closely  upon  the  lines  of  informa- 
tion than  others,  is  the  coast  patrol,  or  coast  guard,  as  it  is  now 
called. 

THE   SIGNAL  CORPS  AND  THE   COAST  PATROL,  OR   COAST  GUARD. 

It  will  perhaps  appear  to  a  student  of  the  present  condition  of  our 
defense  that  the  important  subject  of  coast  observations,  or  coast 
patrol  has  not  received  from  the  army  the  attention  it  deserves.  It 
is  true  that  radio  and  signal  stations  have  been  erected  within  artil- 
lery districts,  and  by  the  navy;  but  great  stretches  of  coast,  often 
containing  good  harbors,  landing  beaches,  and  magnificent  lookout 
stations,  sometimes  deserted  and  at  others  occupied  by  men  of  the 
executive  branches  of  the  government,  at  many  of  which  valuable  in- 
formation of  friend  or  enemy  at  sea  may  be  gathered,  remain  not 
only  unprovided  with  lookout  stations,  but  are  also  without  the 
means  of  rapidly  communicating  their  news  to  the  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  of  the  country,  and  remain  in  general  unprepared 
for  service  in  war.  This  condition  will  no  doubt  soon  be  changed  in 
accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  of  January  28,  1915,  by  which 
a  coast  guard* is  created  by  combining  the  life-saving  service  and 
revenue-cutter  service,  under  the  Treasury  Department  in  time  of 
peace  and  under  the  navy  in  time  of  war  or  when  the  President 
shall  so  direct.  But  it  is  believed  that  the  need  of  the  cooperation 
of  the  trained  men  and  efficient  equipment  prepared  by  the  signal 
corps  for  just  this  kind  of  work  is  important.  Of  course  it  is  assumed 
that  when  needed  these  outposts  will  be  given  necessary  equipment; 
but  for  this  no  provision  has  yet  been  made  by  the  army.  The  state 
of  unpreparedness  in  regard  to  an  important  factor  of  the  defense 
is  believed  to  be  passing  away,  however,  and  its  existence  at  present 
should  not  be  attributed  to  lack  of  foresight  or  to  negligence  on  the 
part  of  the  army,  but  considered  due,  first,  to  the  fact  that  coast  de- 
fense is  only  beginning  to  be  taken  up  seriously  as  a  whole,  and  sec- 


78  THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

ond,  to  lack  of  means  and  multiplicity  of  duties  imposed  upon  the 
small  signal  corps  of  the  army  which  should  be  associated  with  any 
plan  for  coast  patrol. 

It  appears  that  the  navy  and  the  Treasury  Department  have  pre- 
pared or  are  now  preparing  a  guard  of  the  coast,  and  have  included 
in  this  service  officers  and  men  drawn  from  the  revenue-cutter  and 
life-saving  services.  It  can  not  be  doubted  that  the  guard  thus 
organized  will  form  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  to  the  coast  defense. 
A  glance  at  conditions,  however,  will  show  if  any  doubt  can  exist  on 
the  subject,  how  closely  the  services  afloat  and  ashore  are  interwoven 
in  the  duties  of  a  coast  guard  or  coast  patrol;  yet,  perhaps  for  the 
reason  that  the  army  has  thus  far  taken  no  steps  towards  the  organi- 
zation of  such  a  guard,  the  cooperation  of  the  land  forces  at  present 
appears  merely  incidental.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  army  should, 
without  delay,  be  given  a  standing  in  regard  to  the  coast  guard  and 
become  something  more  than  a  mere  auxiliary  in  this  factor  of  de- 
fense, and  through  a  properly  organized  patrol  and  air  service  ally 
itself  fully  with  the  other  departments  of  the  government  in  this  im- 
portant work.  In  fact,  without  the  full  cooperation  of  the  signal 
corps  of  the  army  and  the  participation  of  troops  trained  in  the  serv- 
ice of  lines  of  information  and  in  the  use  of  the  aeroplane ;  the  estab- 
lishment of  signal  stations,  and  telegraph,  telephone,  and  buzzer  lines ; 
cables ;  the  captive  balloon  and  the  dirigible,  it  is  hard  to  see  not  merely 
how  the  best  methods  of  gathering  intelligence  in  war  can  be  employed 
by  a  coast  guard,  but  how,  when  so  gathered,  the  information  obtained 
can  be  transmitted  to  the  centers  of  control,  to  altillery  fixed  positions 
and  their  auxiliaries,  and  to  the  mobile  army  from  distant  observation 
stations,  coast  islands,  and  lighthouses,  or  from  the  floating  auxiliaries 
and  passing  ships,  with  the  speed  and  certainty  which  alone  make 
such  information  valuable. 

INFORMATION  IN   WAR. 

In  general  it  appears  evident  that  when  war  comes  the  service  of 
security  and  information  in  coast  defense,  as  in  the  field,  implies^ 
first,  the  collection  of  military  information  or  intelligence;  second, 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  79 

its  transmission ;  and,  third,  its  correlation  and  use.  In  regard  to  the 
first  of  these  elements  it  may  be  said  that  the  collection  of  information, 
is  primarily  the  duty  of  the  coast  patrol,  but  will  in  war  become 
the  duty  of  the  mobile  army,  the  fixed  defenses,  and  of  every  man  of 
the  government  service,  both  civil  and  military,  and,  indeed,  of  all 
people  of  the  country.  But  although  important  information  may 
thus  come  from  many  sources  and,  no  matter  what  the  source,  should 
be  transmitted  to  proper  authority,  yet  incidental  information,  like 
incidental  soldiering,  is  merely  auxiliary  to  the  organized  service  of 
information.  The  continued  value  of  this  service  will  depend  upon 
a  properly  organized  corps  of  men  who  will  transmit  the  reports  of 
trained  observers  from  the  air  craft,  signal,  and  observation  stations, 
from  lighthouses  and  other  government  establishments,  from  the 
floating  auxiliaries  and  ships  as  well  as  from  chance  sources  of  in- 
formation, and  from  the  thousand  watchers  of  the  coast,  upon  all  of 
whom  reliance  must  be  placed  in  war  to  collect  that  information  upon 
which  will  depend  the  attitude  of  the  defense. 

But  both  judgment  and  experience  in  regard  to  the  weight  to  be 
given  this  information  will  be  needed  by  officers  and  men  in  charge 
of  this  service,  and  of  its  transmission,  if  a  constant  condition  of 
unrest  and  excitement  is  to  be  avoided  at  inshore  terminals.  Who 
can  doubt,  for  example,  that  information  received  at  the  centers  of 
control  will  determine  the  attitude  of  the  army  of  the  defense  in 
threatened  areas,  and  perhaps  its  ability  to  prevent  surprise  or 
repel  attack;  that  the  news  or  no  news,  often  equally  important, 
from  the  coast  will  govern  the  preparedness  and  vigilence  of  the 
mobile  troops  and  supports  and  keep  the  artillerymen  at  the  guns 
or  give  them  release;  that,  in  short,  a  well-organized  service  pro- 
vided with  trained  men  skilled  in  the  use  and  maintenance  of  lines 
of  information  will  relieve  the  defense  of  the  greater  part  of  its 
strain  in  the  absence  of  the  enemy,  multiply  many  times  its  effi- 
ciency in  his  presence,  and  permit  the  smaller  force  to  do  the  work  of 
the  larger.  While,  on  the  other  hand,  an  insufficient  service  of  infor- 
mation, handicapped  by  slow,  inaccurate,  or  faulty  transmission,  will, 
plague  and  worry  the  defense  with  useless  anxieties  and  alarms,  if  it 


80  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

does  not  even  lead  on  to  disaster.  It  follows  that  the  transmission  of 
information,  which  is  the  second  element  of  the  service  of  security, 
is  a  duty  of  vital  importance,  which  should  be  intrusted  only  to 
trained  men  under  military  control,  supplied  with  the  best  known 
appliances  for  this  service,  and  should  never  be  left  to  the  chance 
efforts  of  any  irresponsible  person  who  can  use  a  telegraph  key  or  a 
radio  instrument.  In  other  words,  that  the  section  of  the  coast  guard 
to  which  the  duty  of  transmission  of  information  is  intrusted  should 
~be  composed  of  men  trained  in  naval  and  military  signaling  and  be 
familiar  with  the  methods  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army.  In  addi- 
tion to  service  with  the  coast  guard,  however,  it  is  presumed  that 
signal  men  of  the  army  and  of  the  militia  will  be  detailed  to  service 
with  air  craft  as  well  as  aboard  scout  ships,  patrol  and  picket  boats, 
and  other  floating  auxiliaries,  for  duty  as  radio  and  visual  signal  men. 
but  this  is  a  detail  that  need  not  be  considered  here. 

With  the  use  that  will  be  made  of  the  information  when  received, 
which  is  the  third  element  of  the  service  of  security,  the  patrol  has  no 
concern,  since  this  will  depend  upon  commanding  generals,  and  the 
reception  and  correlation  of  reports  upon  staff  officers  at  headquar- 
ters, presumably  signal  officers,  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  formulate 
and  weigh  the  information  transmitted. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  appears  that  the  coast  patrol  will  be- 
come in  future  one  of  the  strongest  arms  of  that  service  of  security 
and  information  upon  which  so  much  dependence  is  necessarily  placed 
in  modern  war.  It  follows,  and  it  can  not  be  doubted,  that  this 
patrol  or  guard  when  organized  should  be  thoroughly  efficient  in 
numbers,  personnel,  organization,  and  equipment,  and  that  its  men, 
who  are  frequently  placed  at  lonely  stations  and  required  to  act 
upon  their  own  initiative,  should  be  not  only  steady,  well-disciplined 
soldiers,  but  in  addition  must  be  carefully  selected,  intelligent,  and 
keen  men,  skilled  as  observers  and  trained  in  the  use  of  the  tele- 
graph and  of  mechanical  appliances.  Besides  all  this  they  should 
possess  that  judgment  which  seldom  blunders  in  its  work.  For- 
tunately for  the  country,  men  of  this  character  are  many  in  civil 
life  and  will  be  found  in  abundance  among  the  volunteers  called, 
but  these  men  must  be  trained  as  soldiers. 


THE    SERVICE    OF    INFORMATION.  81 

ASSOCIATION    OF    THE    SIGNAL    CORPS    WITH    THE    COAST    PATROL    OR 

COAST   GUARD. 

It  appears  that  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  should  be  closely 
associated  with  the  coast  guard  for  the  duty  of  collecting  and  trans- 
mitting military  information  along  the  coasts  of  the  United  States, 
and  especially  at  such  exposed  positions  as  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Hawaii,  and  the  Panama  Canal,  which  are  of  paramount  importance. 
If  so  associated,  it  seems  evident  that  the  equipment  of  the  coast 
guard  for  the  transmission  of  information  back  from  outlook  and 
patrol  stations  along  the  coast  should  be  that  of  the  signal  corps, 
which  has  the  advantage  of  having  been  approved  and  well  tried  out 
in  service.  It  is  believed  further  that  the  portion  of  this  patrol  which 
must  in  time  of  war  come  under  army  control  should  be  organized, 
trained,  and  equipped  by  the  signal  corps,  and  that  the  collection  and 
transmission  of  information  so  far  as  it  relates  to  army  command  in 
coast  defense  should,  as  with  the  army  in  the  field,  be  placed  under  the 
charge  of  the  chief  signal  officer  of  the  army,  acting  through  a  sub- 
ordinate officer  in  immediate  charge  at  the  front.  The  men  required 
for  this  work  can  not,  and  need  not,  be  actually  present  during  peace, 
except  those  of  the  executive  departments  of  the  government  and 
hence  the  actual  enrollment  of  the  army  personnel  may  be  left  to  a 
later  period;  but  plans  of  organization  should  be  undertaken  with- 
out delay.  These  will  look  to  the  formation  in  each  coast  zone 
of  a  patrol  of  the  necessary  strength,  made  up  in  peace  from  the 
organized  militia,  who  shall  receive  each  year  as  much  training  as 
practicable  in  coast  signal  work,  in  connection  with  the  signal  troops 
of  the  regular  establishment.  This  training  of  the  patrol  will  in- 
clude the  installation  and  use  of  signal  equipment  of  all  kinds,  the 
aeroplane  and  probably  the  dirigible ;  the  operation  of  field  and  radio 
stations;  the  establishment  of  observation  stations;  the  service  and 
maintenance  of  field  telegraph  and  buzzer  lines ;  and,  in  general,  the 
collection  and  transmission  of  military  information  by  all  approved 
methods.  There  seems  no  reason  why  this  instruction  should  not  be 
given  to  the  signal  organizations  of  the  militia,  as  is  now  done  for  the 
artillery  and  infantry  of  the  state  troops  in  connection  with  the  exer- 
cises or  maneuvers  of  the  coast  artillery  of  the  army.  To  do  this 

14689—15 6 


82  THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

would  simply  mean  the  extension  of  the  present  valuable  training  of 
the  militia  to  include  instruction  in  the  service  of  a  coast  guard  within 
certain  prescribed  limits  and  would  give  to  the  signal  men  of  the 
militia  training  in  a  branch  of  signal  corps  work  of  great  impor- 
tance to  them,  especially  in  those  states  which  border  the  sea.  Fur- 
thermore, it  is  believed  that  the  plans  for  an  organized  coast  guard 
will  in  future,  in  addition  to  the  naval  and  other  services,  provide 
that  in  war  the  signal  men  of  the  militia  be  formed  into  companies 
and  battalions  with  the  signal  troops  of  the  regular  army  and  with 
the  necessary  number  of  technical  men  of  the  volunteers  taken  from 
aviators,  electrical  men,  radio  and  telegraph  operators,  and  telephone 
men  of  civil  life  in  such  proportion  that  the  whole  shall  form  an 
effective  service. 

The  number  of  signal  men  required  in  war  for  coast  patrol,  how- 
ever, will  be  governed  by  the  character  of  the  coast  they  are  called 
upon  to  patrol  and  can  not  be  stated  generally.  But  probably  at  least 
one-half  of  the  total  required  should  be  trained  as  signal  troops. 

As  a  further  step  in  preparation  for  defense,  it  is  suggested  that 
the  signal  corps  of  the  army  be  authorized  to  provide  at  govern- 
ment reservations,  such  as  lighthouses,  marine  hospitals,  and  life- 
saving  stations,  and  those  of  other  executive  departments  suitable  as 
lookout  stations,  magazines  of  material  of  the  less  perishable  sort 
which  will  furnish  part  of  the  means  of  establishing  observation 
stations  at  the  outbreak  of  war  and  hangars  for  aeroplanes,  hydro- 
aeroplanes, and  perhaps  of  captive  and  dirigible  balloons.  In  addi- 
tion, island  stations  and  lightships  should  be  connected  by  cable — out 
of  use  in  peace  and  with  the  ends  prepared  for  periodic  testing  to 
insure  their  perfect  condition — with  interior  or  mainland  stations, 
whence  the  military  field  telegraph  or  wheel  or  pack  radio,  could 
rapidly  be  extended  at  need  to  commercial  offices.  In  this  way 
departments  of  the  government  which  are  always  on  duty  will,  when 
needed  for  coast  patrol  service,  be  ready  for  almost  immediate  use. 
At  mainland  stations  of  the  Government  should  be  placed  signal 
stores  of  a  bulk  character,  telegraph  or  telephone  material,  wire, 
lance  poles,  supplies  for  electric  batteries,  flags,  and  other  apparatus 
for  the  use  of  the  communications  in  war. 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  83 

These  preparations  should  not  be  put  off  to  the  day  of  stress  sure 
to  precede  hostilities,  for  if  the  stations  and  material  needed  are 
ready  the  men  necessary  to  use  the  equipment  and  construct  lines  of 
information  can  be  quickly  placed  on  duty  in  an  emergency.  It  is 
probable  that  most  of  the  valuable  observation  points  of  the  coast  are 
no.w  occupied  by  government  stations  of  one  service  or  another  and 
could  safely  be  provided  with  necessary  material,  but  others  are  so 
circumstanced  that  nothing  should  be  done  by  way  of  preparation 
until  hostilities  threaten,  since,  if  not  owned  by  the  government, 
magazines  can  not  wisely  be  established  at  them.  Such  points  can, 
however,  and  should  be  carefully  marked,  their  character  made 
known,  and,  possibly  in  the  case  of  very  important  localities,  material 
for  their  conversion  into  signal  stations  could  be  stored  at  the  nearest 
artillery  post  or  quartermaster  depot. 

It  appears  then  that  without  the  limits  of  the  artillery  districts 
it  will  be  sufficient  in  peace  for  the  signal  corps  to  establish  maga- 
zines and  lay  or  store  cable  at  stations  of  the  executive  departments 
important  to  the  coast  patrol.  But  within  the  limits  of  artillery 
commands  not  only  should  such  magazines  be  established  but  each 
of  them  should  be  given  signal  and  radio  stations  of  the  types 
authorized.  With  no  factor  of  the  defense  is  the  signal  corps  of 
the  army  more  intimately  connected  than  with  the  coast  patrol  or 
coast  guard,  and  it  should  be  evident  that  without  signalmen  such  a 
guard  will  be  feeble  indeed. 

LINES    OF    INFORMATION    OF    COAST   DEFENSE. 

It  is  unnecessary  here  to  enter  into  a  consideration  of  the  part 
played  in  past  years  by  signal  corps  installations  in  the  defense  of 
fixed  positions  or  to  attempt  to  describe  in  detail  the  instruments, 
often  highly  complicated,  that  have  been  devised  by  the  signal  corps 
for  the  service  of  fire  control.  These  matters  have  largely  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  coast  artillery  itself.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
what  follows  applies  only  to  lines  of  information  that  are  permanent 
in  character,  which,  from  their  extent  and  importance,  can  only  be 
properly  installed  during  the  leisure  of  peace. 


84  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

The  work  of  installing  the  fire  control  was  formerly  performed 
by  the  signal  corps  of  the  army,  and  many  of  the  types  of  instru- 
ments used  have  been  designed  or  adapted  by  the  corps.  But  in 
addition  to  the  fire-control  systems  there  must  exist  both  within 
and  without  artillery  districts  the  fifth  factor  of  the  coast  defense, 
that  is  lines  of  information,  whether  electrical  or  visual,  by  means 
of  which  artillery  headquarters  are  kept  in  touch  with  the  interior 
of  the  country  and  with  centers  of  control;  the  factors  and  ele- 
ments of  the  defense  are  brought  into  coordination;  fixed  positions 
connected;  and  the  district  bound  into  a  whole  under  control  of  its 
commander,  as  an  army  in  the  field  is  linked  together  and  maneu- 
vered by  its  general. 

These  units  are,  as  a  rule,  separated  from  each  other  by  considerable 
distances.  Each  headquarters,  however,  is  kept  in  touch  with  the 
others  electrically,  mainly  through  the  commercial  systems  of  the 
country ;  but  the  commercial  systems  are,  of  necessity,  frequently  sup- 
plemented by  military  lines,  which  extend  them  to  artillery  headquar- 
ters. Within  artillery  areas  the  various  posts  may,  or  may  not,  be 
reached  by  commercial  systems,  and,  indeed,  even  district  headquar- 
ters, when  placed  on  coast  islands  or  at  other  isolated  and  scantily 
peopled  localities,  from  which  the  money  returns  would  be  small  and 
the  expense  of  installation  and  maintenance  of  land  lines  and  cables 
would  be  great,  are  dependent  at  all  times  upon  military  lines  of  infor- 
mation for  communication  with  the  outer  world  as  well  as  with  the  fixed 
positions  themselves.  Even  in  peace  it  is  not  probable  that  these  con- 
ditions will  change  in  regard  to  isolated  posts;  unless,  indeed,  the 
government  is  prepared  to  alter  its  present  wise  policy  and  offer  a 
bonus  to  private  companies  for  the  construction  and  operation  of 
electric  communications — a  plan  that  would  be  expensive  in  peace  and 
inefficient  in  war,  since  lines  of  information  important  to  and  near 
by  military  positions  must  certainly  in  war  be  under  the  control  of 
soldiers  alone.  As  to  interpostal  lines,  it  is  neither  desirable  nor 
practicable  that  they  should  be  under  civil  control  at  any  time. 

In  general,  artillery  lines  of  fire  control  and  of  information  will, 
in  peace,  be  permanent  in  type  (except  the  field  lines  necessary  in 
maneuvers) ;  but  in  war  to  permanent  lines  will  be  added  a  network 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  85 

of  temporary  systems  as  flexible  and  extensive  as  need  be,  and  in 
character  resembling  those  of  an  army  in  campaign ;  more  limited  in 
extent,  perhaps,  but  based  on  more  stable  conditions  and  consequently 
easier  to  install  and  maintain  against  interruption  by  an  enemy, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  radio,  and  if  interrupted  more  easy  to  re- 
pair, since  the  material  for  repair  should  always  be  at  hand  at  the 
fixed  positions.  But  as  with  lines  of  information  in  the  field  those 
of  the  coast  defense,  both  permanent  and  temporary,  must  be  certain 
and  speedy.  They  will  be  more  complicated  and  varied  than  is  pos- 
sible with  the  former,  since  they  imply,  in  addition  to  land  lines,  sys- 
tems of  information  extending  both  under  and  over  the  sea,  and 
include  in  their  scope  every  known  method  of  transmitting  intelli- 
gence from  the  wink  of  the  ardois,  the  flash  of  the  searchlight,  the 
tick  of  the  telegraph  key,  or  call  of  the  buzzer  to  the  message  of  the 
long-distance  radio  and  of  the  aeroplane  or  dirigible. 

With  the  permanently  laid  lines  of  the  coast  defense  transmission 
should,  of  course,  be  as  efficient  and  satisfactory  as  in  civil  life  if  the 
systems  are  properly  installed  and  skillfully  operated  in  practice; 
but  in  order  to  secure  these  results  it  is  evident  that  the  ponderous 
permanent  systems  of  the  fixed  defenses,  both  fire  control  and  infor- 
mation, can  not  be  thrown  out  in  an  hour  like  the  wires  of  a  march- 
ing army,  but  must  be  carefully  planned  and  constructed  in  advance 
during  the  leisure  of  peace,  as  the  defenses  themselves  are  planned, 
must  progress  to  completion  with  them,  and  when  in  place  must  be 
proof  against  reasonable  probability  of  interruption. 

Temporary  lines  will,  of  course,  be  installed  only  when  demanded 
by  the  exercises  and  maneuvers  of  peace  or  by  the  exigencies  of  war. 
Nevertheless,  the  means  of  providing  them  should  be  at  hand  within 
each  artillery  district,  so  that  when  needed  field  telegraph  and- 
buzzer  lines  may  be  laid  easily,  quickly,  and  without  confusion  from; 
district  headquarters  to  the  supports,  mobile  troops,  to  head- 
quarters and  observation  stations  of  the  coast  patrol.  The  telegraph 
and  telephone  radio  sets  and  visual  appliances  should  be  in  readiness 
for  use  in  the  exchange  of  signals  between  the  fixed  positions  and 
coast-defense  ships,  patrols,  picket  boats,  and  scout  ships,  as  well  as 
torpedo  planters  and  the  cable  ship  when  necessary,  and  with  the 


86  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

navy.  The  field  telephone  should  be  ready  to  tell  its  story  from 
observation  stations  and  the  aeroplane  and  dirigible  should  be  at  hand 
to  send  by  radio  or  visual  signals  their  messages  from  land  or 
sea.  Thus  the  temporary  lines  of  artillery  districts  will  in- 
clude many  aerial  systems,  and  even  the  permanent  communi- 
cations will  not  be  electrical  alone.  Both  will  depend  largely  upon 
the  auxiliary,  but  still  very  important,  class  of  visual  and  aural 
signals,  which  before  the  introduction  of  the  radio  telegraph  were 
the  only  means  known  of  exchanging  ideas  without  material  connec- 
tion. Visual  signaling  is  probably  more  important  in  coast  defense 
than  with  the  army  in  the  field  and  is  vital  when  communication  is 
needed  between  ships  and  shore  and  the  radio  is  silent.  Whether  or 
not  all  the  signal  apparatus  above  outlined  will  be  used  by  the 
defense  is  another  matter;  still  the  possibility  exists,  and  the  fact 
remains,  that  opportunity  should  be  given  those  who  have  control 
to  employ  every  method  of  transmitting  information  that  may 
prove  reasonably  valuable.  To  do  this  it  is  necessary  that  signal 
appliances  of  all  useful  kinds  be  stored  in  depots  within  artillery 
areas,  in  addition  to  the  material  required  for  the  emergency  repair 
of  permanent  systems. 

In  war  the  headquarters  of  each  artillery  position,  even  more  than 
coast  patrol  stations,  will  become  a  nucleus  of  intelligence  regarding 
events  at  sea,  and  therefore  the  service  of  information  in  and  from 
these  districts  should  be  as  perfect  as  it  can  be  made.  The  means  of 
transmission  should  be  the  best  known,  and  the  men  who  use  and 
maintain  the  lines  the  most  efficient  that  can  be  selected  for  this 
special  work.  It  seems,  therefore,  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  men 
intrusted  with  the  transmission  of  intelligence  for  the  general  de- 
fenses of  the  coast  should  be  soldiers  trained  in  the  work  of  the 
signal  corps  of  the  army  and  familiar  with  its  instruments  and 
methods. 

Many  further  details  concerning  lines  of  information  of  the  cost 
defense  might  be  discussed  here,  but  space  forbids,  and  it  remains 
merely  to  note  again  the  acknowledged  importance  to  the  defense  of 
the  radio  and  the  air  craft. 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  87 

CONCLUSION. 

In  this  paper  an  effort  has  been  made  to  outline  the  actual  and 
potential  work  of  that  branch  of  the  army  which  is  charged  with 
service  of  the  military  lines  of  information — that  is,  of  the  signal 
corps. 

Imperfect  as  the  result  of  this  effort  is,  it  will  not  have  been  wholly 
in  vain  if  it  serves  to  emphasize  the  steadily  growing  value  to  the 
coast  defense  and  to  the  army  of  lines  of  military  information.  The 
subject  is  as  broad  as  it  is  important,  but  divides  itself  naturally  into 
two  widely  separated  branches,  each  of  which  is  essential  to  the  mili- 
tary service  of  the  country  and  vital  to  its  safety.  These  two  are,  first, 
the  lines  of  information  of  the  mobile  army  in  maneuver  and  in  cam- 
paign; and,  second,  the  lines  of  information  of  the  national  coast  de- 
fense in  the  exercises  of  peace  and  in  the  exigencies  of  war.  It  is  use- 
less to  attempt  to  weigh  the  relative  value  of  these  two  branches  of 
the  service  of  the  transmission  of  information;  they  constitute  the 
field  of  duty  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army,  and  it  follows  that  the 
signal  corps  of  the  future  will  be  called  upon  to  cultiA^ate  not  one  but 
two  fields  of  duty,  equally  important,  but  very  different  in  character, 
either  one  of  which  will  demand  the  best  efforts  of  a  force  of  special 
troops  far  larger  than  now  provided  by  law.  This  force  will  no  doubt 
grow  in  size  and  importance  as  military  organization  improves,  but  it 
is  useless  to  hope  that  in  peace  a  full  measure  of  preparation  for  war 
will  ever  be  granted  to  the  signal  corps  of  the  army,  or,  indeed,  to  any 
branch  of  the  regular  establishment.  With  the  people  of  the  United 
States  deep  planted,  indeed,  is  the  belief  expressed  of  his  own  country 
in  bygone  days  by  one  of  the  greatest  of  French  writers : 

Thrice  fortunate  land,  where  the  ground  has  only  to  be  struck  in  the  name  of 
the  nation  *  *  *  for  armies  to  immediately  rise  from  it  as  though  by  magic. 


HISTORY. 


HISTORY. 
SIGNAL  CORPS  AT  LARGE. 

The  first  employment  of  a  successful  system  of  telegraphic  com- 
munications in  armies  had  its  beginning  in  the  army  of  the  United 
States.  The  idea  and  its  development  sprang  from  the  genius  and 
enthusiasm  of  Albert  James  Myer,  then  a  young  army  surgeon. 
After  perfecting  the  codes  and  apparatus  he  urged  the  adoption  of 
the  system  in  the  army.  Much  delay  and  opposition  ensued,  but 
finally,  after  being  tried  out  by  a  board  of  officers  and  recommended 
by  the  Secretary  of  War,  it  was  accepted. 

The  office  of  signal  officer  of  the  army,  with  the  rank  of  major  of 
cavalry,  was  created  by  section  17  of  the  act  of  June  21,  1860,  and 
Albert  J.  Myer  was  appointed  to  the  position — the  first  of  its  kind 
in  history.  He  was  at  once  sent  to  the  department  of  New  Mexico, 
where  he  was  ordered  into  the  field  in  an  expedition  against  hostile 
Navajo  Indians.  The  first  signal  detachment  detailed  to  assist  him 
consisted  of  Lieut.  L.  L.  Rich,  Fifth  Infantry,  and  Lieut.  O.  B. 
Wagner,  of  the  engineers,  and  16  enlisted  men.  This  campaign, 
which  ended  in  February,  1861,  demonstrated  conclusively  the  suc- 
cess of  Myer's  system  of  signaling.  Other  officers  were  then  detailed 
for  instruction  at  Santa  Fe,  but  upon  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war 
Maj.  Myer  was  ordered  east.  At  Fortress  Monroe,  pursuant  to  an 
order  by  Gen.  Butler,  dated  June  12, 1861,  the  first  school  for  instruc- 
tion in  signaling  was  opened  by  Maj.  Myer  with  10  officers  and  30 
men  detailed  as  students.  On  account  of  unwillingness  to  serve  or 
inefficiency  4  of  these  officers  were  soon  relieved  and  replaced  by 
others.  By  the  middle  of  August,  1861,  the  great  value  of  communi- 
cation by  signals  on  the  battlefield  began  to  be  generally  recognized, 
especially  since  it  became  known  that  the  Confederates  had  efficient 
signal  officers  in  the  field,  and  details  of  officers  and  men  for  signal 
duty  were  made  by  Gens.  Banks,  Stone,  McCall,  and  others.  These 
men  were  gathered  into  small  camps  of  instruction  at  Sugar  Loaf 

91 


92  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

Mountain,  Hyattstown,  Poolesville,  Tennallytown,  and  Darnestown, 
and  on  August  29,  1861,  a  central  camp  of  instruction  was  estab- 
lished on  Red  Hill,  in  Georgetown,  D.  C.  Lieut.  Samuel  T.  Gushing, 
who  organized  and  commanded  the  signal  camp  of  instruction  at 
Georgetown,  said: 

It  was  a  motley  crowd.  The  officers  and  men  were  detailed  from  the  various 
regiments  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  Men  from  Massachusetts,  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York,  Maine,  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  New 
Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  Indiana,  etc. ;  infantry,  cavalry,  artillery,  buck- 
tails,  chausseurs,  lancers,  zouaves,  etc.,  all  wearing  uniforms  that  had  been 
adopted  by  the  state  organizations  before  being  mustered  into  the  United  States 
service. 

As  soon  as  they  were  instructed,  signal  parties  were  sent  out  to 
the  various  headquarters  and  with  expeditions,  and  officers  were  sent 
to  various  commands  to  establish  and  instruct  other  signal  parties. 
In  December,  1861,  no  less  than  73  officers  and  147  men  reported, 
and  the  total  number  instructed  at  the  Georgetown  camp  up  to  March, 
1862,  was  103  officers  and  212  men. 

The  parties  sent  out  into  active  service  varied  in  size.  Seven  officers 
and  14  men  went  with  Gen.  Sherman  on  the  Port  Royal  expedition ; 
3  officers  and  6  men  reported  to  Gen.  Burnside  for  duty  on  the  New- 
berne  expedition;  9  officers  and  25  men  joined  Gen.  Hooker  on  the 
south  Potomac  on  February  24,  1862.  Most  of  the  parties  sent  out 
to  brigades  and  divisions  were  called  "  sections,"  and  consisted  of  2 
officers  and  4  men. 

By  an  act  of  Congress  approved  February  22,  1862,  the  acting 
signal  corps  got  its  first  legal  recognition  in  the  words :  "All  officers, 
temporarily  serving  as  signal  officers,  shall  receive,  for  the  time  they 
are  so  serving,  the  pay  of  officers  of  cavalry."  The  officers  of  the  act- 
ing signal  corps  were  all  lieutenants.  There  was  no  promotion  for 
them  in  the  body  to  which  they  were  detailed,  and  being  absent  from 
their  regiments  they  were  debarred  from  the  chances  for  promotion 
open  to  all  other  volunteers.  No  instance  can  be  found  of  the  promo- 
tion of  an  officer  while  absent  from  his  regiment  on  signal  duty.  This 
same  unfortunate  and  discouraging  restriction  applied  equally  to  the 
enlisted  men.  The  order  under  which  the  details  for  signal  service 
were  made  prescribed  that  the  officers  should  be  "  intelligent  men  of 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  93 

education,  possessing  good  eyesight,  and  persons  in  whom  regimental 
commanders  have  especial  confidence,  the  privates  to  be  selected  on 
account  of  their  intelligence  and  to  be  able  to  read  and  write." 

It  is  said  that  men  of  this  character  were  quite  generally  picked  for 
detail,  though  the  sole  reward  was  in  the  privilege  of  having  work 
of  unusual  interest  and  the  consciousness  of  duty  faithfully  performed. 

Such  were  the  effects  of  the  system  of  regimental  details  upon  the 
individual  welfare  of  those  concerned.  The  effect  upon  the  service 
itself  was  a  matter  of  more  vital  concern.  Officers  were  frequently 
and  unexpectedly  relieved  either  by  their  own  wish  or  that  of  their 
regimental  commanders.  In  some  cases,  whole  detachments,  sent  to 
fields  remote  from  the  influence  of  the  controlling  genius  of  this  new 
service,  were  there  disbanded  by  commanding  generals  and  returned 
to  their  regiments  for  duty.  This  was  in  time  remedied  in  part  by  a 
War  Department  order  forbidding  the  relief  of  acting  signal  officers 
except  by  order  of  the  adjutant  general  of  the  army. 

Just  as  the  appointment  of  the  first  signal  officer  and  the  detail  of 
subsequent  officers  had  been  actively  and  in  some  cases  bitterly  op- 
posed by  officers  of  that  class  who  were  antagonistic  to  innovations  and 
progress  generally,  the  acting  signal  officers  and  men  were  at  first 
used  more  frequently  as  aides  and  escorts  and  scouts  than  as  signal- 
men. 

The  retardation  of  progress  in  the  art  of  military  signalling  due 
to  these  causes  varied  in  every  command.  The  detail  system  was 
given  a  fair  trial  throughout  a  period  of  two  years  in  campaign  and 
upon  the  battle  field.  As  stated  by  a  student  of  the  period— 
in  this  length  of  time  its  merits,  if  it  had  any,  should  have  been  made  over- 
whelmingly manifest,  and  its  faults  should  have  suggested  their  correction.  But 
the  experiment  showed  the  faults  too  deep-seated  for  correction  short  of  radical 
reconstruction,  and  the  merits  expected  were  uniformly  absent. 

By  section  17  of  the  act  of  March  3, 1863,  a  signal  corps  was  created 
to  consist  of  a  chief  signal  officer  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  one  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  two  majors  who  were  to  be  inspectors,  and  for  each 
army  corps  or  military  department  one  captain  and  as  many  lieu- 
tenants, not  exceeding  eight,  as  the  President  might  deem  necessary. 
The  officers  thus  provided  we're  to  receive  the  mounted  pay  of  their 


94  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

grades  and  were  to  continue  in  service  during  the  pendency  of  the 
existing  rebellion. 

For  each  officer  authorized  by  the  act  of  March  3, 1863,  one  sergeant 
and  six  privates  were  to  be  detailed  from  the  volunteer  armies,  who 
were  to  receive  the  pay  and  allowances  of  men  of  the  engineers. 
Eligibility  for  appointment  and  detail  were  to  be  determined  in  f>art 
by  prior  faithful  service  in  the  acting  signal  corps,  and  were  condi- 
tional in  all  cases  upon  the  successful  passing  of  a  preliminary  exam- 
ination. 

The  history  of  the  signal  corps  during  the  rest  of  the  civil  war 
merges  into  the  history  of  the  several  armies  in  the  field.  As  general 
officers  became  acquainted  with  its  capabilities,  its  activities  in  its 
special  line  grew,  its  efficiency  grew,  and  its  services  became  indis- 
pensable to  those  commanders  progressive  enough  to  avail  themselves 
of  its  modern  and  timely  assistance. 

It  was  divided  among  12  military  departments. 

On  October  21,  1863,  the  roll  of  the  signal  corps  showed : 

Captains 45 

First  lieutenants___ 88 

Second  lieutenants 65 

Officers 198 

Sergeants 47 

Privates 767 

Men 814 

Of  these  officers,  there  were  serving  in  the  army  of  the  Potomac, 
26;  army  of  the  Cumberland,  42;  army  of  the  Gulf,  15;  army  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  18 ;  army  of  the  South,  21 ;  army  of 
the  Susquehanna,  3;  army  of  the  Tennessee,  41;  headquarters  and 
instruction  camp,  22.  From  first  to  last  about  2,500  enlisted  men 
served  with  the  signal  corps,  of  which  1,783  were  members  of  the 
corps.  From  all  of  these  only  9  received  commissions  as  signal 
officers.  The  commissions  went  principally  to  subalterns  of  volun- 
teer regiments,  a  few  going  to  enlisted  men  from  the  same,  and  a 
score  or  so  to  civilians. 


THE   SEEVIOE  OF  INFOBMATION.  95 

Considering  the  short  range  of  weapons  of  that  period,  the  com- 
paratively short  lines  and  limited  areas  occupied  by  military  opera- 
tions, the  system,  perfection  of  training,  and  effectiveness  of  appa- 
ratus of  the  signal  corps  seem  to  have  been  fully  adequate  for  the 
needs  of  its  day  and  to  have  created  for  that  corps  a  permanent  field 
of  usefulness. 

The  indispensable  character  of  this  service  was  uniformly  attested 
by  a  long  list  of  famous  generals,  including  Sherman,  Sheridan, 
Thomas,  Hancock,  Pleasanton,  and  many  others. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  as  the  various  armies  dissolved,  the  signal 
detachments  were  mustered  out  and  the  corps  ceased  to  exist. 

A  reorganization  of  the  regular  army  followed.  The  military 
peace  establishment  provided  by  the  act  of  July  28,  1866,  included 
one  chief  signal  officer  with  the  rank  of  colonel,  but  made  no  provi- 
sion for  a  signal  corps.  It  did  authorize  the  detail  of  6  officers  from 
the  line  and  not  to  exceed  100  enlisted  men  from  the  engineer  bat- 
talion. The  hard-learned  lessons  of  the  great  war  were  ignored.  A 
system  of  organization  that  had  failed  and  been  discarded  was  now 
begun  all  over  again.  Acting  signal  officers  were  detailed  from  the 
line  from  time  to  time  in  varying  numbers,  thus  exceeding  the  provi- 
sion of  the  law.  Likewise  the  number  of  enlisted  men  soon  came  to 
be  fixed  by  executive  regulation. 

By  the  act  of  March  3, 1871,  the  duties  connected  with  the  observa- 
tion and  report  of  storms  were  assigned  to  the  signal  corps. 

By  the  act  of  June  18, 1878,  the  number  of  enlisted  men  was  estab- 
lished at  450;  and  by  the  act  of  June  20,  1878,  the  enlisted  force  of 
the  corps  was  fixed  at  150  sergeants,  30  corporals,  and  270  privates, 
who  were  to  receive  the  pay  and  allowances  of  enlisted  men  of  corre- 
sponding grades  in  the  battalion  of  engineers.  By  this  enactment 
the  commissioned  force  of  the  corps  was  increased  by  the  annual 
appointment  of  two  second  lieutenants,  to  be  selected  from  the  grade 
of  sergeant. 

The  rank  of  brigadier  general  was  conferred  upon  the  chief  signal 
officer  of  the  army  by  the  act  of  June  16,  1880,  and  the  number  of 
privates  was  increased  to  320. 


96  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

By  the  act  of  August  4,  1886,  the  number  of  second  lieutenants 
was  limited  to  16,  the  signal  school  of  instruction  at  Fort  Myer,  Va., 
was  abolished,  and  the  Secretary  of  War  was  authorized  to  detail 
five  commissioned  officers  of  the  army  for  signal  duty,  this  number 
to  be  in  addition  to  the  second  lieutenants  already  authorized  by  law. 

This  requirement  was  repeated  in  the  acts  of  October  2,  1888,  and 
March  2, 1889,  by  which  enactments  the  number  of  second  lieutenants 
was  reduced  to  14. 

During  the  24  years  from  1866  to  1890,  urged  only  by  the  sluggish 
demands  of  peace  the  corps  advanced  through  a  cycle  of  progress 
that  corresponds  almost  identically  with  that  of  the  first  two  years 
of  the  war,  from  1861  to  1863.  The  same  insurmountable  obstacles 
were  encountered.  For  the  second  time  the  detail  system  was  pro- 
nounced a  failure  and  was  discarded. 

President  Cleveland,  in  his  first  annual  message  to  Congress,  rec- 
ommended a  reorganization  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army. 

By  the  act  of  October  1,  1890,  the  strength  of  the  signal  corps  was 
established  at  1  chief  signal  officer  with  the  rank  of  brigadier  general, 
1  major,  4  captains,  4  first  lieutenants,  and  50  sergeants  (10  first  class 
with  pay  and  allowances  of  hospital  stewards).  The  second  lieu- 
tenants then  in  the  corps  not  selected  for  appointment  as  first  lieuten- 
ants were  transferred  to  the  line  of  the  army. 

Just  as  in  1863,  the  officers  appointed  to  the  corps  were  selected 
from  the  officers  of  the  army  by  competitive  examination.  In  select- 
ing the  board  of  officers  to  pass  on  the  comparative  merits  of  appli- 
cants the  Secretary  of  War  so  constituted  it  as  to  represent  the  vol- 
unteer soldier,  the  scientific  professions,  and  the  graduates  of  the 
military  academy. 

The  sergeants  were  selected  in  part  from  old  members  of  the  corps, 
and  in  part  from  the  numerous  candidates  among  noncommissioned 
officers  of  the  line. 

The  corps  was  shorn  of  its  extraneous  occupations,  and  there  began 
an  era  of  feverish  activity  in  the  development  of  its  purely  military 
side. 

The  military  telegraph  lines  on  the  frontier  and  in  the  Indian 
country  were  extended.  Practice  in  signaling  in  line  organizations 
was  supervised,  and  proficiency  became  more  general  than  ever 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  97 

before — or  since.  Visual  signaling,  especially  with  the  heliograph, 
reached  a  degree  of  perfection  beyond  that  ever  attained  in  any 
army.  New  instruments,  new  types  of  wire,  and  apparatus  for 
handling  it  were  invented,  and  the  service  of  electrical  field  lines 
.brought  to  a  practical  basis. 

In  the  act  of  August  6,  1894,  it  was  provided  that  upon  the  occur- 
rence of  a  vacancy  in  the  office  of  the  chief  signal  officer  the  com- 
missioned personnel  of  the  corps  was  to  consist  of  1  colonel,  1 
lieutenant  colonel,  1  major,  3  captains,  and  3  first  lieutenants. 

The  act  of  March  2,  1897,  authorized  the  promotions  provided  in 
the  act  of  August  6,  1894,  to  be  mao^^. 

Such  was  the  signal  corps  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish- Ameri- 
can War  in  1898 — a  corps  of  commissioned  and  enlisted  specialists. 

Under  the  act  of  April  26,  1898,  authority  was  given  to  add  to 
the  signal  corps  of  the  regular  army  in  time  of  "war  10  corporals, 
100  first-class  privates,  and  40  second-class  privates. 

In  providing  for  a  signal  corps  for  the  volunteer  army  then  being 
raised  the  same  principles  of  organization  were  wisely  adopted. 

By  section  2  of  the  act  of  May  18,  1898,  and  joint  resolution  No.  53 
of  July  8,  1898,  a  volunteer  signal  corps  was  authorized  to  consist 
of  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant  colonel,  1  major  as  disbursing  officer,  and 
not  to  exceed  1  lieutenant  colonel  for  each  army  corps,  and  2  captains, 
/2  first  lieutenants,  5  first-class  sergeants,  10  sergeants,  10  corporals, 
and  30  first-class  privates  to  each  organized  division  of  troops.  It 
was  provided  that  a  certain  proportion  of  these  men  were  to  be 
skilled  electricians  or  telegraph  operators. 

In  the  act  of  March  2,  1899,  authority  was  given  to  continue  in  the 
service  or  to  appoint  in  the  volunteer  signal  corps  4  majors,  9  cap- 
tains, 9  first  lieutenants,  and  9  second  lieutenants. 

In  orders  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  March  8,  1899,  the 
enlisted  strength  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  was  established  as 
100  first-class  sergeants,  200  sergeants,  50  corporals,  300  first-class 
privates,  50  second-class  privates,  and  20  cooks;  and  by  general 
orders,  No.  17,  from  headquarters  of  the  army,  dated  February  16, 
1900,  the  enlisted  strength  of  the  signal  corps  of  the  army  was 
increased  to  800  enlisted  men,  in  grades  as  follows:  130  first-class 
14689—15 7 


98  THE    SERVICE    OF    INFORMATION. 

sergeants,  220  sergeants,  TO  corporals.  310  first-class  privates,  02 
second-class  privates,  and  8  cooks. 

By  joint  resolution  approved  June  4,  1900,  the  President  of  the 
United  States  was  empowered  to  appoint  10  first  lieutenants  of 
volunteers  in  the  signal  corps,  whose  commissions  were  to  expire 
June  30,  1901,  and  to  increase  the  enlisted  strength  of  the  regular 
army  to  800. 

In  the  history  of  the  war  with  Spain  the  regular  and  volunteer 
signal  corps  are  inseparably  connected.  The  GO  regulars — men  and 
officers — were  but  a  framework  to  the  116  officers  and  1,000  men  of 
the  volunteers.  Apart  from  the  chief  signal  officer,  every  regular 
signal  officer  but  one  served  as  a  volunteer,  and  all  were  merged  and 
unified  into  one  command. 

While  the  volunteers  were  for  the  most  part  untrained  soldiers, 
they  were  largely  technically  educated  and  skilled  men — electrical 
and  civil  engineers,  electricians,  telegraph  operators,  line  construc- 
tion men,  and  the  like. 

The  hitherto  unequaled  achievements  of  the  signal  corps  in  the 
war  with  Spain  and  in  the  Philippine  insurrection  which  followed 
it  are  well  known. 

Again,  as  in  the  days  of  1863  and  1864,  the  corps  attained  such 
efficiency  in  the  handling  of  field  lines  of  information  and  ren- 
dered a  service  so  valuable  that  it  made  for  itself  an  indispensable 
place  in  the  conduct  of  all  military  operations. 

The  expressions  of  Gens.  Lawton,  MacArthur,  Bates,  Bell,  and 
many  others  were  unanimous  and  positive  in  recognizing  not  only 
the  inestimable  value  of  the  service  rendered,  but  the  high  individual 
ability  of  the  officers  and  men  of  the  signal  corps,  and  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  organization  as  a  whole.  The  expressions  of  this  char- 
acter that  are  available  would  make  a  considerable  volume,  and  re- 
ports of  failures  of  the  corps  are  curiously  lacking. 

After  the  close  of  the  war  with  Spain  the  peace  establishment  of 
the  regular  army  was  fixed  by  the  .act  of  February  2,  1901,  which 
gave  to  the  signal  corps  1  chief  signal  officer  with  the  rank  of 
brigadier  general,  1  colonel,  1  lieutenant  colonel,  4  majors,  14  cap- 
tains, 14  first  lieutenants,  80  first-class  sergeants,  120  sergeants,  150 


THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  99 

corporals,  250  first-class  privates,  150  second-class  privates,  and  10 
cooks.  It  provided  also  a  system  of  details  by  the  operation  of  which 
the  permanent  commissioned  personnel  of  the  corps  would  be  gradu- 
ally replaced  as  vacancies  occurred  by  officers  detailed  from  the  line 
of  the  army  for  a  period  of  four  years. 

In  connection  with  the  legislation  of  February  2,  1901,  authority 
was  granted  "  to  continue  in  the  service  during  the  present  emergency 
for  duty  in  the  Philippine  Islands  5  volunteer  officers  in  the  signal 
corps  with  the  rank  of  first  lieutenant  and  5  volunteer  officers  in  the 
signal  corps  with  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant." 

When  the  war  ended  it  seemed  logical  that  the  size  of  the  corps  and 
the  amount  of  its  duties  would  be  materially  decreased.  The  corps 
itself  was  decreased,  but  the  duties  imposed  upon  it  continued  to 
increase. 

In  order  to  provide  in  some  measure  for  the  demands  upon  its  per- 
sonnel, the  act  of  June  30, 1902,  increased  the  enlisted  strength  by  50 
first-class  sergeants  for  duty  in  the  Philippines  and  Alaska  only ;  and 
again,  by  the  act  approved  March  2, 1903,  the  commissioned  force  was 
increased  by  the  addition  of  1  lieutenant  colonel,  2  majors,  4  captains, 
and  4  first  lieutenants. 

These  additions  were  followed  by  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  April 
23, 1904,  which  fixed  the  enlisted  force  of  the  signal  corps  at  36  master 
signal  electricians,  132  first-class  sergeants,  144  sergeants,  156  corpo- 
rals, 552  first-class  privates,  168  privates,  and  24  cooks. 

By  the  act  of  July  18, 1914,  an  aviation  section  was  created  as  part 
of  the  signal  corps  and  charged  with  the  duty  of  operating  or  super- 
vising the  operation  of  all  military  air  craft.  This  section  was  also 
charged  with  the  duty  of  training  officers  and  enlisted  men  in  matters 
pertaining  to  military  aviation,  and  provided  that  in  addition  to  such 
officers  and  enlisted  men  as  should  be  assigned  to  it  from  the  signal 
corps  at  large  to  executive,  administrative,  scientific,  or  other  duty,  it 
would  contain  not  to  exceed  60  aviation  officers  and  260  aviation  en- 
listed men,  with  grades  as  follows:  Twelve  master  signal  electricians: 
12  first-class  sergeants;  24  sergeants;  78  corporals;  8  cooks;  82  first- 
class  privates ;  and  44  privates. 


100  THE    SERVICE    OF    INFORMATION. 

HISTO1JY    OF    THE    AVIATION     SECTION    OF    THE    SIGNAL    CORPS. 

The  history. of  aviation  in  the  army  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  periods,  the  first  being  that  before  there  was  any  recognition 
of  aviation  by  law,  or  until  the  passage  of  the  act  approved  March 
2,  1913.  The  second  period  is  that  from  the  passage  of  this  act  until 
the  establishment  of  the  aviation  section  of  the  signal  corps  by  the 
act  approved  July  18,  1914,  while  the  third  period  embraces  the  time 
between  the  formation  of  this  section  until  the  present.  Outside 
of  the  part  that  the  signal  corps  played  in  the  experiments  of  the 
late  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley,  which  were  terminated  by  the  unfortunate 
accident  to  his  man-carrying  "  aerodrome "  on  December  8,  1903, 
nothing  was  done  to  develop  military  aviation  in  the  army  until 
1907,  when  the  chief  signal  officer  obtained  an  allotment  of  funds 
from  the  board  of  ordnance  and  fortification  for  the  purchase  of 
an  experimental  aeroplane  for  military  purposes  and  established  an 
aeronautical  division  in  his  office  by  his  memorandum  No.  6  of 
August  of  that  year,  since  which  latter  date  the  division  has  been 
charged  with  "  all  matters  pertaining  to  military  ballooning,  air 
machines,  and  kindred  subjects." 

In  December  of  1907  advertisements  for  proposals  for  an  experi- 
mental military  aeroplane  were  issued  and  42  bidders  responded, 
although  only  one  presented  a  machine  in  the  summer  of  1908  at 
Fort  Myer,  Va.  During  the  test  of  this  machine  an  unfortunate 
accident  resulted  in  the  death  of  an  officer  on  aviation  duty  and  the 
serious  injury  of  Mr.  Orville  Wright.  This  caused  a  suspension  of 
activities  until  the  following  summer,  when  a  new  machine  having 
been  submitted  for  trial  at  the  same  place  successfully  passed  the 
tests  and  was  accepted. 

By  this  time  four  officers  were  on  duty  in  the  aeronautical  divi- 
sion, and  an  aviation  detachment  composed  of  enlisted  men  of  the 
signal  corps  had  been  formed  and  stationed  at  Fort  Myer,  Va.  An 
aviation  field  at  College  Park,  Md.,  was  leased  in  August  of  1909 
and  temporary  buildings  erected.  The  lease  of  this  field  was  ter- 
minated in  1913.  After  the  acceptance  of  the  Wright  machine,  it 
was  transferred  to  the  field  at  College  Park,  and  the  training  of  two 
officers,  under  the  supervision  of  the  Wrights,  was  initiated.  The 


THE    SERVICE    OF'  INFORMATION'.    '  101 

aviation  detachment  and  the  aeroplane  were  sent  to  Chicago,  111., 
for  a  display  at  the  electrical  trades  exposition  in  December  of 
that  year,  and  in  February,  1910,  was  transferred  to  San  Antonio, 
Tex.,  for  duty  with  the  maneuver  division  then  stationed  there. 
When  this  division  was  disbanded  in  July  of  1911,  the  detachment 
was  consolidated  at  College  Park  with  another  one  that  had  been 
organized  there  on  July  7  of  that  year. 

The  establishment  at  College  Park,  Md.,  was  designated  as  the 
signal  corps  aviation  school  by  office  memorandum  No.  13,  from  the 
office  of  the  chief  signal  officer,  dated  July  3,  1911,  and  special 
orders,  No.  143,  War  Department,  of  that  year,  directed  an  officer 
of  the  signal  corps  to  assume  charge  of  the  aviation  field  at  Col- 
lege Park.  The  school  was  transferred  to  Augusta,  Ga.,  for  the 
winter  in  November  of  1911,  and  returned  to  College  Park  in  March 
of  1912,  where  it  remained  until  November  of  the  same  year,  when 
it  was  again  returned  to  Augusta,  Ga.,  for  the  winter.  At  the  time 
of  the  departure  of  the  school  for  Augusta  a  detachment  was  sent 
to  North  Island,  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  after  the  arrival  of  the  school 
at  Augusta,  Ga.,  a  detachment  was  sent  in  February,  1913,  to  Palm 
Beach,  Fla.  This  detachment  joined  the  main  detachment  in  March 
of  that  year  after  the  main  detachment  had  joined  the  second  divi- 
sion at  Texas  City,  Tex.,  to  which  place  it  had  been  ordered  in 
March.  The  detachment  remained  at  Texas  City  until  the  early  part 
of  June,  1913,  when  it  was  transferred  to  North  Island,  San  Diego, 
Cal.  On  its  departure  from  Texas  City  a  detachment  was  left  for 
duty  with  the  second  division,  and  this  detachment  rejoined  the 
school  at  San  Diego  in  November  of  1913.  In  June  of  1913  a  de- 
tachment was  sent  from  San  Diego  to  Hawaii  and  return  to  the 
former  place  in  August  of  1914.  In  the  early  part  of  March  of  1913 
an  aviation  detachment  was  organized  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  In 
December  of  that  year  the  school  at  San  Diego  for  the  theoretical 
and  practical  instruction  in  aviation  was  announced  to  the  army  as 
the  signal  corps  aviation  school,  per  special  orders,  No.  79,  War 
Department,  1913,  and  was  made  a  part  of  the  educational  system 
of  the  United  States  army  by  paragraph  449,  army  regulations, 
1913. 


102  THK    SKKVU'K    OK    1  N  KOI?  M  ATIOX  . 

The  act  approved  March  2,  1913,  contains  the  first  reference  to 
personnel  engaged  on  aviation  duty  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  law. 
That  part  of  the  act  referred  to  reads  as  follows: 

Provided  further,  That  from  and  after  the  passage  and  approval  of  this  act 
the  pay  mid  allowances  that  are  now  or  may  be  hereafter  fixed  by  law  for 
officers  of  the  Regular  Army  shall  be  increased  thirty-five  per  centum  for  such 
officers  us  are  now  or  may  be  hereafter  detailed  by  the  Secretary  of  War  on 
aviation  duty:  Provided,  That  this  increase  of  pay  and  allowances  shall  be 
given  to  such  officers  only  as  are  actual  flyers  of  heavier-than-air  craft,  and 
while  so  detailed:  Provided  further,  That  no  more  than  thirty  officers  shall 
be  detailed  to  the  aviation  service. 

Immediately  after  the  passage  of  the  act  of  March  2,  1913,  three 
officers  were  ordered  to  report  to  the  chief  signal  officer,  Philippine 
Department,  on  or  about  March  10,  1913,  for  a  course  of  instruction 
in  aviation  at  Fort  William  McKinley,  and  one  to  command  the 
signal  corps  aviation  detachment  at  Texas  City,  while  additional 
officers  were  detailed  on  duty  pertaining  to  aviation  at  other  points 
in  the  United  States. 

The  act  approved  July  18,  1914,  charged  the  signal  corps  "  with 
the  duty  of  operating  or  supervising  the  operation  of  all  military 
air  craft,  including  balloons  and  aeroplanes,  all  appliances  pertain- 
ing to  said  craft,  and  signaling  apparatus  of  any  kind  when  installed 
on  said  craft;  also  with  the  duty  of  training  officers  and  enlisted 
men  in  matters  pertaining  to  military  aviation,"  established  the  avia- 
tion branch,  fixed  the  number  and  grades  of  officers  and  men,  made 
general  provisions  for  their  detail,  rating,  and  relief,  and  fixed  their 
pay.  At  the  time  of  the  approval  of  this  act  there  were  18  officers  on 
duty  with  the  aviation  section.  Twelve  of  these  were  rated  as  junior 
military  aviators,  three  as  aviation  students,  two  remained  on  their 
status  under  the  act  of  March  2,  1913,  and  one  on  his  status  under 
paragraph  18,  special  orders,  No.  211,  War  Department,  1913. 

No  funds  were  appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  aeroplanes  and 
accessories  previous  to  the  passage  of  the  act  approved  March  3, 
1911,  which  carried  the  sum  ,of  $125,000  for  that  purpose  for  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1912,  $25,000  of  which  was  rendered  imme- 
diately available.  One  hundred  thousand  dollars  was  appropriated  for 
the  fiscal  year  of  1913,  $125,000  for  the  fiscal  year  of  1914.  $250.000  for 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  103 

the  fiscal  year  of  1915,  and  $300.000  for  the  current  year.  Until  the 
passage  of  the  act  of  March  3,  1911,  the  signal  corps  had  been  unable 
to  purchase  any  aviation  equipment.  The  only  machine  available  for 
service  for  a  period  of  18  months  was  the  original  Wright  machine 
obtained  through  an  allotment  of  funds  by  the  board  of  ordnance 
and  fortification.  The  limited  appropriations  have  always  been  a 
serious  embarrassment  to  the  signal  corps,  as  it  has  never  been  able 
to  purchase  equipment  adequate  to  the  needs  of  the  aviation  service. 
The  lack  of  a  sufficient  number  of  suitable  machines  and  equipment 
has  greatly  hampered  the  instruction  of  the  officers  and  men  on  avia- 
tion duty  and  seriously  delayed  the  development  of  a  suitable  aviation 
establishment  in  the  army. 


TECHNICAL  APPARATUS. 


105 


TECHNICAL   APPARATUS. 

Having  indicated  some  of  the  many  duties  of  the  signal  corps 
of  the  army,  it  is  proper  to  mention  here  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant instruments  and  materials  which  experience  has  proved  to  be 
suitable  for  this  service.  These  instruments  and  apparatus,  of  course, 
change  from  time  to  time  with  the  progress  of  events  and  the 
advances  of  electricity  and  the  mechanical  arts,  but  the  more  impor- 
tant of  those  used  at  the  present  time  may  be  briefly  set  down  as 
follows : 

RADIO  APPARATUS  FOR  THE  MOBILE  ARMY. 

The  enormous  importance  of  radiotelegraphy  in  military  affairs 
needs  no  comment  here;  suffice  it  to  say  that  great  attention  is  and 
has  been  given  recently  to  this  method  of  communication,  and  sev- 
eral types  of  apparatus  have  been  devised  by  the  signal  corps  and 
are  in  the  hands  of  troops.  The  first  of  these  is  known  as  the  radio 
tractor.  The  instruments  and  switchboards  are  installed  in  a  spe- 
cially designed  covered  body,  which  is  mounted  on  the  chassis  of  a 
commercial  gasoline  truck.  Sufficient  space  is  available  for  the 
transportation  of  a  crew  of  10  men.  By  means  of  a  special  clutch 
and  gear  the  engine  is  made  to  drive  an  alternator  for  furnishing 
the  necessary  electrical  energy. 

The  mast  and  umbrella  type  antenna  are  raised  .by  means  of  a 
shears  located  on  top  of  the  tractor,  and  the  average  time  con- 
sumed in  erecting  the  antenna  and  placing  the  set  in  operation  is 
eight  minutes. 

The  tractors  thus  far  developed  are  of  1  and  2  kilowatts  capacity 
Under  ideal  conditions  the  larger  set  has  transmitted  messages  for 
distances  of  250  miles ;  the  normal  range  of  this  type  under  the  most 
trying  atmospheric  conditions  is  100  miles.  The  2-kilowatt  tractor 
is  intended  for  use  at  field  army  headquarters.  Its  weight  without 
crew  is  about  9,200  pounds. 

107 


108  THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

The  smaller  tractor,  known  as  the  divisional  type,  has  a  range  of 
from  50  to  150  miles,  varying  according  to  atmospheric  conditions. 
The  weight  of  this  set  is  about  5,700  pounds  without  crew. 

Both  types  of  radio  tractors  will,  it  is  believed,  prove  satisfactory 
under  field  conditions.  But  it  is  probable  that  horse-drawn  sets, 
specially  constructed,  must  be  provided  for  the  field  companies. 

Two  types  of  skid  sets  have  been  developed.  These  are  intended 
to  be  transported  in  escort  wagons  or  similar  vehicles.  In  the  smaller 
(1  kilowatt)  set  the  engine  and  the  generator  are  mounted  on  skids 
and  can  be  carried  by  two  or  four  men.  In  the  larger  type  (2  kilo- 
watts) the  engine  and  generator  are  mounted  on  separate  frames,  but 
so  constructed  that  they  can  be  readily  bolted  together.  The  weight 
of  each  unit  does  not  exceed  350  pounds. 

The  receiving  and  transmitting  instruments  and  switchboard  are 
carried  in  a  fiber  case  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary  trunk.  When  not 
in  operation  the  switchboard  lies  flat  in  the  case;  in  use  its  position 
is  vertical. 

The  sectional  masts  and  antennae  are  similar  to  those  used  with 
the  radio  tractors ;  that  is,  60  and  80  feet  long,  according  to  size  of  set. 

The  receiving  and  transmitting  instruments  of  the  latest  type  of 
radio  packset  are  contained  in  a  case  slightly  larger  than  an  ordinary 
suitcase.  The  transmitter  is  supplied  with  energy  obtained  from  a 
500-cycle  110- volt  self -excited  alternating  current  generator  operated 
manually  by  means  of  two  crank  handles  connected  with  a  series  of 
gears  for  turning  the  armature  at  the  necessary  speed.  The  gen- 
erator and  gears  are  inclosed  in  a  dustproof  housing,  so  arranged  that 
the  gears  continually  revolve  in  a  lubricant.  The  generator  is 
mounted  on  a  standard. 

A  40-foot  sectional  mast  is  used.  The  antenna  is  of  the  umbrella 
type  and  consists  of  four  stranded  wires,  each  85  feet  long,  insulated 
at  the  open  ends  and  held  by  guy  ropes.  Instead  of  a  direct  ground 
connection,  a  counterpoise,  consisting  of  four  insulated  wires,  each 
100  feet  long,  is  radiated  from  the  mast  along  the  ground. 

The  time  required  to  place  the  packset  in  operation  is  three  minutes. 
Its  range  under  ordinary  atmospheric  conditions  is  25  miles. 

Another  type  of  radio  apparatus  is  the  radio  table  set,  designed 
for  use  on  harbor  boats  employed  in  the  seacoast  defenses  of  the 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  109 

United  States  and  island  possessions.  Practically  tha  same  appara- 
tus as  that  in  the  radio  packset  is  used  in  the  table  set,  the  only  dif- 
ference being  that  the  instruments  are  mounted  on  a  table,  and  in- 
stead of  the  hand  generator,  a  motor  generator,  usually  of  the  110- 
volt  direct-current  type,  is  used.  Current  for  the  motor  is  supplied 
from  the  ship's  lighting  system.  The  antenna  is  erected  on  the  ship's 
mast  and  does  not  form  a  part  of  the  regular  table  set  equipment. 

Due  to  the  fact  that  signals  are  transmitted  largely  over  water,  the 
transmitting  range  is  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the  radio  packset. 

THE  SERVICE  BUZZER. 

The  service  buzzer  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  and  serviceable  in- 
struments used  in  the  army.  It  is  strictly  a  portable  device  and  can 
be  used  either  as  a  telephone  or  for  sending  telegraph  signals.  When 
used  the  latter  way,  the  sound  received  in  the  distant  telephone  re- 
ceivers is  similar  to  a  high  frequency  radio  spark.  Signals  have  been 
exchanged  over  a  broken  line,  both  ends  of  which  were  slightly 
grounded.  By  providing  a  suitable  opening  in  the  leather  case  for 
connecting  cords  and  directly  over  the  knob  of  the  sending  key  a 
round  aperture  covered  with  flexible  pigskin,  the  instrument  can  be 
operated  with  the  case  closed — a  great  advantage  in  inclement 
weather.  An  adjustable  carrying  strap  is  provided. 

FIELD  INDUCTION  SET. 

This  instrument  is  used  on  semipermanent  field  lines  and  usually 
replaces  the  service  buzzer. 

As  with  the  buzzer,  a  high  electromotive  force  is  obtained  with  a 
small  induction  coil  by  means  of  which  lines  having  poor  insulation 
or  high  resistance  may  be  successfully  operated.  The  field  induction 
set  is  designed  for  the  transmission  of  telegraph  signals  only.  All 
instruments  are  inclosed  in  a  wooden  case  with  carrying  strap. 

CAMP  TELEPHONE  SWITCHBOARD. 

This  neAv  40-drop  switchboard  is  the  result  of  years  of  development, 
and  the  principal  advantages  claimed  for  it  on  camp-telephone  sys- 


110  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

terns  are  compactness,  portability,  and  stanchness.  It  has  proven  to 
be  very  efficient  in  camp  service.  When  taken  down  for  transporta- 
tion or  storage  the  switchboard  resembles  a  small  chest. 

CAMP  TELEPHONE. 

This  was  designed  particularly  for  use  in  camps,  and  it  can  be 
used  for  permanent  or  temporary  installations.  It  is  of  the  local 
battery  type.  In  stormy  weather  it  can  be  operated  with  the  cover 
closed.  The  transmitter  and  watchcase  receiver  form  a  unit,  termed 
a  hand  set,  and  are  mounted  on  a  metal  base.  When  the  receiver  is 
placed  to  the  ear  the  mouthpiece  is  automatically  adjusted  to  the 
proper  speaking  distance. 

Ordinarily  the  hook  protrudes  through  the  case,  but  when  ready 
for  transportation  or  when  it  is  desired  to  remove  the  component 
parts  from  the  base  of  the  case  it  is  merely  necessary  to  depress 
and  push  the  hook  toward  the  case  to  place  it  in  the  down  position. 
This  opens  the  battery  circuit  and  protects  the  hook.  The  instru- 
ment may  be  hung  to  the  vertical  pole  of  the  tent  or  placed  on  a  table. 

HELIOGRAPH. 

This  method  of  signaling  employs  the  concentration  arid  reflection 
of  the  sun's  rays  by  means  of  mirrors.  The  heliograph  as  originally 
designed  abroad  did  not  possess  the  features  necessary  to  make  its 
operation  entirely  successful,  but  in  the  present  type  developed  by 
the  signal  corps  many  improvements  have  been  made,  so  that  it  is 
now  a  reliable  medium  for  visual  signaling. 

The  latest  type  of  heliograph  consists  of  a  screen  designed  to  operate 
a  shutter  and  control  the  flash  reflected  from  an  immobile  mirror. 
All  parts  are  carried  in  a  leather  pouch  with  shoulder  strap. 

The  range  of  signaling  depends  entirely  on  atmospheric  conditions 
and  suitable  terrain.  Under  favorable  conditions  good  results  at 
distances  as  great  as  30  miles  have  been  obtained,  but  the  heliograph 
has  been  known  to  work  at  much  greater  distances.  The  rate  of  trans- 
mission is  from  5  to  12  words  per  minute. 


THE    SERVICE    OF    INFORMATION.  Ill 

ACETYLENE  LANTERN. 

This  is  a  night-signaling  lantern  ordinarily  supported  on  a  tripod. 
The  carbide  generator  is  hung  from  the  apex  of  the  tripod  and  the  gas 
flows  through  a  soft  rubber  tube  to  the  lantern.  The  lantern  is 
equipped  with  a  special  aplanatic  lens  mirror.  Signals  are  made  by 
depressing  a  key  that  opens  a  gas  valve  and  causes  the  ordinarily 
dim  light  to  flare  up.  Messages  can  be  sent  a  distance  of  about  20 
miles.  The  rate  of  transmission  is  about  the  same  as  with  the  helio- 
graph. 

THE   VERY   PISTOL. 

The  Very  pistol  is  a  breech-loading,  single-shot  pistol  with  an  8- 
inch  steel  barrel  chambered  to  receive  a  12-gauge  commercial  shotgun 
shell.  Brass  shells  are  used  and  are  packed  in  boxes  colored  to  indi- 
cate an  element  of  any  alphabet  or  any  special  signal  which  may  be 
desired. 

The  Very  system  projects  red,  white,  and  green  stars  which  rise  to 
a  height  of  about  200  feet  and  remain  visible  for  some  time.  This  sys- 
tem is  not  adapted  to  the  general  use  of  the  dot  and  dash  code,  but 
should  be. used  with  preconcerted  signals  or  with  the  international 
Code  of  Signals  or  other  conventional  code  book. 

FLAG  KITS,  GENERAL  SERVICE  AND  SEMAPHORE. 

Five  kinds  of  flag  kits  are  issued  by  the  signal  corps :  The  stand- 
ard 2-foot  kit,  the  Infantry  2-foot  kit,  and  the  standard  4-foot  kit,  for 
use  with  the  general  service  code,  and  two  types  of  semaphore-flag 
kits,  one  standard  and  the  other  of  a  pattern  temporarily  in  service  in 
the  field  and  coast  artillery,  both  for  use  with  the  two-arm  sema- 
phore code. 

The  2-foot  kit. — The  standard  2-foot  kit  consists  of  one  white  and 
one  red  signal  flag,  one  three- join  ted  staff,  and  a  suitable  carrying 
case  to  contain  the  outfit.  The  white  flag  is  made  of  white  galatea  2 
feet  square,  with  an  8-inch  turkey-red  center.  The  red  flag  is  of  simi- 
lar size  and  material,  the  only  difference  being  an  alternation  of  colors 
in  the  body  and  center.  The  means  of  attachment  to  the  staff  con- 
sists of  a  loop  at  the  center  and  two  ends  of  white  tape  at  each  edge  of 
the  back  of  the  flag  body.  The  staff  is  made  of  hickory  in  three  joints, 
each  23  inches  long,  and  is  assembled  by  means  of  brass-screw  ferrules. 


112  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

Brass  eyes  are  provided  on  the  first  and  second  joints  to 'receive  the 
tape  ends  at  the  edge  of  the  flag.  The  olive  drab  carrying  case  is  of 
convenient  size  and  shape  to  contain  two  flags  and  staffs  complete  and 
is  bound  with  leather  and  fitted  with  a  shoulder  strap. 

The  infantry  kit  consists  of  one  flag  2  feet  square  with  staff  and 
case  identical  with  those  furnished  with  the  standard  2-foot  flag  kit. 

The  standard  2-foot  kit  is  essentially  a  practice  kit,  although  under 
favorable  conditions  of  weather  and  terrain  it  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage as  a  short-distance  service  signalling  outfit.  Two  of  these 
kits  are  issued  to  each  troop  of  cavalry,  each  company  of  coast  ar- 
tillery, and  each  company  of  Philippine  Scouts. 

The  4-foot  kit. — The  standard  4-foot  kit  is  of  essentially  the  same 
description  as  the  2-foot  kit  except  as  regards  size.  The  flags  are  3  feet 
9  inches  square  with  12-inch  centers,  and  the  staffs  are  considerably 
heavier,  the  joints  being  86  inches  long.  The  4-foot  kit  is  the  stand- 
ard field  flag  kit,  and  the  range  at  which  signals  can  be  exchanged 
with  it  depends  on  a  variety  of  factors,  such  as  the  condition  of  the 
weather,  the  location  of  stations,  the  proficiency  of  signalmen,  etc. 
The  speed  for  continuous  signaling  is  seldom  greater  than  five  to  six 
words  per  minute. 

The  semaphore  flag  kit. — This  kit  consists  of  two  flags,  with  two 
staffs  and  case.  Except  those  now  issued  temporarily  to  the  field 
and  the  coast  artillery  the  flags  are  18  inches  square  divided  diago- 
nally into  two  parts,  one  of  red  and  the  other  white;  the  staffs  are  24 
inches  long.  This  is  the  standard  semaphore  flag  kit. 

For  the  field  and  coast  artillery,  the  semaphore  hand  flags  now 
issued  temporarily  are  of  orange  with  a  scarlet  center  and  scarlet 
with  an  orange  center,  one  of  each  constituting  a  kit.  The  flags  are 
18  inches  square,  the  center  9  inches  square,  and  the  staffs  24  inches 
long. 

FIELD  WIRE. 

The  wire  used  for  lines  of  communication  in  the  field  has  been  re- 
duced to  four  types,  namely,  field,  buzzer,  outside  distributing,  and 
galvanized  iron. 

The  first  type  is  a  rubber-insulated  and  braided  strand  composed 
of  10  steel  wires  and  1  copper  wire  having  a  tensile  strength  of  not 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  113 

less  than  300  pounds  and  weighing  about  75  pounds  to  the  mile.  It 
is  laid  and  recovered  by  means  of  wire  carts  and  is  used  principally 
for  telephone  and  buzzer  work. 

Buzzer  wire  is  a  conductor  composed  of  two  steel  strands  and  one 
copper  strand,  double-cotton  covered,  and  impregnated  with  an  insu- 
lating compound.  It  is  supplied  in  half-mile  lengths  and  is  usually 
•laid  by  means  of  a  hand  reel,  operated  by  a  mounted  soldier.  Being 
used  principally  for  buzzer  lines,  high  insulation  is  not  essential. 

Outside  distributing  wire  is  a  twisted  pair  and  consists  of  a  steel 
core  plated  with  copper.  The  steel  is  used  for  strength  and  the  cop- 
per for  conductivity.  It  is  rubber-insulated  and  braided  and  has  a 
tensile  strength  of  about  150  pounds.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  telephone 
purposes,  as  for  lines  between  switchboard  and  instruments. 

Galvanized  iron  wire  is  used  for  long  or  semipermanent  telegraph 
or  telephone  lines  and  is  strung  on  insulated  supports,  such  as  poles 
and  brackets  attached  to  trees.  It  is  usually  12  or  14  gauge. 

FIELD  WIRE  CART. 

The  flying  field  telegraph  lines  laid  with  the  mobile  troops  are 
handled  by  means  of  special  wire  carts.  These  carts  have  been  de- 
veloped since  the  period  of  the  Spanish- American  war  by  successive 
improvements.  The  latest  type  is  a  two-wheel  vehicle  drawn  by 
two  horses,  which  carries  upon  its  drums  5  miles  of  special  field 
wire  which  can  be  payed  out  at  a  trot  or  at  a  gallop,  and  which  by 
means  of  a  special  take-up  arrangement  is  capable  of  picking  up  the 
wire  as  rapidly  a  s  it  can  be  payed  out. 

The  wires  thus  laid  are  followed  by  mounted  linemen  provided 
with  wire  pikes.  These  men  place  the  field  wire  out  of  harm's  way 
along  the  side  of  the  road  or  trail. 

This  cart  contains  a  compartment  under  the  seat  in  which  is  car- 
ried all  of  the  equipment,  instruments,  and  materials  used  in  the  op- 
eration of  the  lines. 

TIME-INTERVAL  APPARATUS. 

A  highly  efficient  and  accurate  instrument  called  a  time-interval 
device  has  been  developed  by  the  signal  corps  for  use  chiefly  in  the 
14689—15 8 


114  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

fire-control  systems  of  seacoast  defenses.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
make  observations  at  the  same  instant  at  locations  miles  apart;  for 
example,  the  two  ends  of  a  geometric  base  line.  For  making  such 
observations  single-stroke  time-interval  bells  are  furnished  which, 
in  connection  with  the  time-interval  apparatus,  ring  simultaneously 
and  intermittently. 

The  apparatus  is  operated  by  means  of  a  small  inclosed  series- 
wound  electric  motor  with  speed  governed  by  means  of  a  fly-ball 
governor  to  make  1,280  revolutions  per  minute.  This  motor  is  geared 
to  a  shaft  supporting  four  metal  disks  placed  equidistant  longitudi- 
nally. The  disks  revolve  at  the  rate  of  one  revolution  per  minute. 
To  each  disk  are  attached  metal  blocks  which  project  beyond  the 
periphery  of  the  disk. 

The  number  and  spacing  of  these  blocks  011  the  respective  disks 
vary.  The  four  disks  operate  four  circuits,  the  interval  of  the  sig- 
nals operated  being  10,  15,  20,  and  30  seconds,  respectively.  It  will 
be  noted  that  at  the  end  of  each  interval  the  circuit  is  energized  three 
times,  the  metal  blocks  attached  to  the  disks  being  provided  with 
three  projections,  which  engage  and  operate  a  quick-brake  contact 
arm.  The  contact  opened  and  closed  by  the  contact  arm  is  in  circuit 
and  acts  on  the  circuit  in  a  manner  similar  to  a  single-pole  switch. 

ATMOSPHERE  SLIDE  RULE. 

This  device  is  used  in  fire  control  in  connection  with  ordnance  of 
high  power  at  seacoast  fortifications.  The  method  of  construction  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  well-known  commercial  type  of  slide  rule,  there 
being  two  slides  in  the  same  groove.  Graduated  scales  indicate  the 
barometer  readings  on  one  slide  and  powder  temperature  on  the  other. 
On  the  upper  side  of  the  barometer  slide  is  a  stationary  scale  indicat- 
ing thermometer  reading;  on  the  lower  side  is  a  stationary  scale 
marked  "Atmosphere."  When  barometer  readings  are  placed  opposite 
thermometer  readings  an  arrow  on  the  slide  indicates  a  number  on  the 
atmosphere  scale.  This  number  is  used  at  the  plotting  board  in 
making  corrections  for  temperature,  there  being  a  predetermined 
scale  on  hand  for  that  purpose.  In  addition,  on  either  side  of  the 
powder  temperature  slide  is  a  muzzle  velocity  scale,  one  of  these 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 


scales  being  a  continuation  of  the  other.  By  placing  opposite  the 
last  muzzle  velocity  reading  obtained  the  temperature  of  the  maga- 
zine on  that  occasion,  the  present  muzzle  velocity  is  indicated  oppo- 
site the  present  temperature  reading. 


FIELD  GLASSES. 


Type  A,  1910.  —  Magnification  approximately  3-|-  and  5J  diameters; 
Gallilean  type;  object  lens,  1J  inches;  interpupillary  adjustment;  tan 
leather  finish;  tan  leather-carrying  case  with  compass;  weight  ol 
glass  complete,  with  case,  cord,  and  strap,  28  ounces.  At  a  distance 
of  1,000  yards  the  field  view  includes  a  diameter  of  110  yards  for  the 
3J  power  and  TO  yards  for  the  5J  power.  Length  of  glass,  closed,  4 
inches.  This  glass  is  issued  as  a  part  of  the  visual  signaling  kit  to 
companies  of  coast  artillery,  infantry,  and  Philippine  Scouts,  and 
to  troops  of  cavalry. 

Type  B.  —  Magnification  approximately  4£  and  6J  diameters  ;  Gal- 
lilean type;  object  lens,  If  inches;  interpupillary  adjustment;  tan 
leather  finish;  tan  leather  carrying  case  with  compass;  weight  of 
glass  complete,  with  case,  cord,  and  strap,  31  ounces.  Length  of 
glass  closed,  4J  inches.  At  a  distance  of  1,000  yards  the  field  of 
view  includes  a  diameter  of  106  yards  for  the  4J  power  and  TO  yards 
for  the  6J  power.  This  glass  was  formerly  issued  as  a  part  of  the 
fire-control  equipment  to  field  artillery. 

Type  C.  —  A  high-power  prismatic  binocular,  the  present  issue 
being  the  Terlux  10-power;  object  lens,  If  inches;  interpupillary 
adjustment;  common  focus  for  both  barrels,  and  one  barrel  equipped 
with  independent  focusing  device;  tan  leather  finish;  sunshade;  tan 
leather  carrying  case;  weight  of  glass  complete,  with  case,  cord,  and 
strap,  48  ounces  ;  length  of  glass  closed,  TJ  inches.  At  a  distance  of 
1,000  yards  the  field  of  view  includes  a  diameter  of  TO  yards.  One 
glass  is  issued  to  the  commanding  officer  of  each  machine-gun  com- 
pany and  machine-gun  troop. 

Type  D.  —  Prismatic  binocular,  the  present  issue  being  the  Busch 
8-power  "  Stellux  "  ;  object  lens  three-fourths  inch  ;  interpupillary  ad- 
justment; common  focus  for  both  barrels,  and  one  barrel  equipped 
with  independent  focusing  device;  tan  leather  finish;  tan  leather 


116  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

carrying  case;  weight  of  glass  complete,  with  case,  cord  and  strap,  21 
ounces;  length  of  glass  closed,  3^  inches.  At  a  distance  of  1,000 
yards  the  field  of  view  includes  a  diameter  of  96  yards.  This  glass 
is  issued  to  field  companies  of  the  signal  corps  and  on  account  of  its 
excellence,  light  weight,  and  small  size  this  glass  is  especially  suit- 
able for  the  personal  field  glass  of  an  officer  who  desires  a  high-power 
field  glass. 

Type  EE. — Prismatic  binocular,  6  power;  object  lens,  1T%  inches; 
mterpupillary  adjustment;  each  barrel  equipped  with  an  inde- 
pendent focusing  device;  one  barrel  equipped  with  a  horizontal  mil 
scale;  tan  leather  finish;  sunshade;  tan  leather  carrying  case  with 
compass;  weight  of  glass  complete  with  case,' cord,  and  strap,  41 
ounces;  length  of  glass  closed,  4^J  inches.  At  a  distance  of  1,000 
yards  the  field  of  view  includes  a  diameter  of  140  yards.  This  glass 
is  the  approved  glass  for  issue  to  field  artillery  organizations. 

To  the  above  brief  outline  of  the  more  important  apparatus  used 
in  transmitting  military. intelligence  are  added,  of  course,  pyrotech- 
nics, smoke  and  flash  bombs,  radio  apparatus,  and  other  signals  for 
use  with  aeroplanes;  telegraph  instruments,  cipher  codes,  and  other 
small  matters  too  many  to  note  here.  Indeed,  it  may  be  said  that 
any  device  which  promises  a  new  or  exceptionally  good  method  of 
transmitting  intelligence  is  tried  out  for  adoption  by  the  signal  corps 
of  the  army. 


OPPORTUNITIES  FOE  VOCATIONAL  TRAINING 
OFFERED  BY  THE  SIGNAL  CORPS. 


117 


OPPORTUNITIES   FOB   VOCATIONAL   TRAINING   OFFERED   BY    THE 

SIGNAL   CORPS. 

Probably  in  no  other  branch  of  the  service  are  there  more  oppor- 
tunities for  character  development  and  vocational  training  than  in 
the  signal  corps.  This  corps,  although  having  the  status  of  a  staff 
corps,  offers  also  many  of  the  advantages  of  the  cavalry  and  the 
infantry.  The  opportunities  afforded  to  capable,  ambitious  young 
men  to  secure  a  technical  education  in  many  lines  of  endeavor,  in 
addition  to  the  beneficial  influences  of  outdoor  work,  are  especially 
valuable.  The  primary  function  of  the  signal  corps  is  the  transmis- 
sion of  military  information,  and  the  present-day  methods  of  com- 
municating thought,  embracing  as  they  do  the  telephone,  the  tele- 
graph, the  radio,  the  aircraft,  visual  signaling,  and  especially  the  use 
of  many  kinds  of  gasoline  engines  and  motors,  are  subjects  of  endless 
investigation  and  vast  possibilities. 

The  technical  education  of  the  signalman  is  very  carefully  con- 
sidered. Schools  of  instructions  are  maintained  at  Fort  Wood,  New 
York  harbor,  and  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans.,  where  courses  are  given 
in  telegraphy,  including  radio,  military  signaling,  electricity,  photog- 
raphy, line  construction;  general  instructions  concerning  the  care 
and  handling  of  government  property  and  rendering  the  necessary 
reports,  and  handling  moneys  received  at  military  telegraph  offices, 
as  well  as  practical  military  instruction  covering  the  duties  of  a 
soldier;  while  the  aviation  school  at  San  Diego,  Cal.,  and  the  avi- 
ation center  at  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  furnish  instruction  regarding  the 
repair,  maintenance,  and  flying  of  aeroplanes.  In  addition  to  the 
schools  named,  each  field  and  telegraph  company  has  its  school,  in 
charge  of  capable  officers,  where  classes  are  conducted  for  instruction 
in  the  duties  performed  by  the  signal  corps.  Separate  laboratories 
are  maintained  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  at  the  United  States 
bureau  of  standards  in  the  same  city.  Detachments  of  the  signal 

119 


120  THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

corps  on  duty  at  these  stations  are  engaged  in  experimental  work  of 
a  most  interesting  character.  Associated  with  electrical  and  radio 
engineers  of  a  high  degree  of  training  and  ability,  members  of  these 
detachments  are  furnished  opportunities,  in  both  theory  and  practice, 
to  perfect  themselves  in  technical  and  intricate  branches  of  elec- 
trical engineering.  Excellent  opportunities  are  also  offered  for 
making  use  of  any  special  aptitude,  as  that  of  a  blacksmith,  car- 
penter, engineer,  machinist,  plumber,  cable  splicer,  and  many  similar 
occupations,  and  men  possessing  a  limited  knowledge  of  any  of  these 
occupations  on  entering  the  corps  have  in  many  cases  been  able  to 
gain  valuable  experience  and  practice,  thus  not  only  often  leading 
to  rapid  promotion  and  agreeable  service  while  members  of  the 
corps,  but  equipping  them  with  a  calling  wherewith  to  earn  a  liveli- 
hood in  civil  life  after  their  terms  of  enlistment  has  been  completed. 

Among  the  subjects  taught  by  the  signal  corps,  special  mention 
is  made  of  modern  aeronautics  and  radio  telegraphy.  The  develop- 
ment of  aeronautics  in  the  army,  with  which  the  signal  corps  is 
charged,  offers  a  field  that  is  new  and  full  of  promise.  Modern  aero- 
nautics, likewise  elcetrical  power  in  the  army,  depend  primarily  on 
the  gasoline  engine — the  machine  that  has  been  the  magic  force  in 
modern  progress — which  in  itself  can  be  made  the  subject  of  a  liberal 
education.  The  rapid  rise  of  radio  telegraphy  and  its  general  ap- 
plication have  been  phenomenal.  The  signal  corps  has  applied  this 
means  of  communication  wherever  its  use  is  possible,  and  has  de- 
veloped and  built  high-power  stations  in  Alaska,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  and  in  the  United  States;  has  devised  and  constructed  port- 
able tractors  of  the  automobile  type  for  use  at  division,  corps,  and 
army  headquarters,  as  well  as  skid  and  pack  sets  for  use  with  small 
commands  and  under  varying  conditions.  Radio  operators  are  re- 
quired for  the  operation  of  these  stations,  as  well  as  expert  gasoline- 
engine  men  for  the  high-power  stations,  and  chauffeurs  with  the 
tractors.  The  signal  corps  has  also  installed  radio  stations  on  all 
army  transports  and  supplies  the  operators  needed  at  these  stations. 

The  constantly  changing  aspect  of  radio  telegraphy  and  the  rapid 
advance  in  the  instruments  employed  for  wire  communication  in  the 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  121 

mobile  army  offer  a  field  of  experimental  and  research  work  of  un- 
limited extent  and  value.  The  highly  efficient  and  modern  instru- 
ments now  employed  by  our  army  for  both  wire  and  radio  com- 
munication are  almost  all  the  direct  results  of  development  work  ac- 
complished at  the  signal  corps  laboratories.  Opportunities  for  so 
easily  and  cheaply  acquiring  high  professional  attainments  of  a 
character  readily  translated  into  terms  of  success  are  rare  and  excep- 
tional, yet  the  signal  corps  is  to-day  offering  such  opportunities. 

In  photography,  another  field  of  commercial  endeavor,  the  signal 
corps  is  also  deeply  interested.  Charged  as  it  is  with  the  making  and 
collecting  of  the  pictorial  history  of  the  country's  military  lifer 
experimental  and  practical  work  of  this  character  is  not  the  least 
of  its  many  opportunities.  In  its  Washington  laboratories  both 
motion  and  ordinary  photography  are  studied  for  the  benefits  of  its 
service  at  large. 

The  course  at  the  schools  at  Forts  Wood  and  Leavenworth  usually 
covers  a  period  of  about  six  months,  at  the  end  of  which  the  men 
have  ordinarily  obtained  the  necessary  foundation  in  theory  and 
practice  to  enable  them  to  be  assigned  to  practical  work,  such  as  main- 
taining telephone  systems  at  military  posts;  operators  at  telegraph 
offices  and  radio  and  cable  stations ;  linemen ;  gasoline  engineers,  and 
photographers  at  detached  stations  or  with  field  and  telegraph  com- 
panies. The  men  upon  completing  the  course  of  instruction  at  the 
aviation  school  at  San  Diego  are  usually  assigned  to  duty  with  aero 
squadrons  at  aviation  centers. 

The  exceptional  feature  about  an  education  obtained  in  the  signal 
corps  is  that  it  not  only  furnishes  the  necessary  theoretical  knowl- 
edge, but  also  supplies  the  practical  experience  without  which  theory 
is  to  a  great  extent  worthless.  The  signal  corps  is  constantly 
installing  and  operating  telephone,  telegraph,  and  cable  systems  and 
radio  stations  under  conditions  as  varied  as  may  be  found  anywhere 
on  the  face  of  the  earth.  At  the  forts  throughout  the  United  States 
and  in  our  possessions  abroad  telephone  systems  are  constructed  that 
offer  all  and  considerably  more  problems  than  are  found  in  ordinary 
commercial  work;  the  operation  of  the  Washington- Alaska  military 
cable  and  telegraph  system  furnishes  experience  in  deep-sea  cable 


122  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

laying  and  sending  and  receiving  messages  by  means  of  the  siphon 
recorder;  while  in  Alaska,  in  the  southwest,  the  Philippines,  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  Hawaii  the  corps  constructs  and  operates  telegraph 
lines  and  radio  stations.  At  the  aviation  school  and  at  aviation  cen- 
ters valuable  experience  can  be  gained  in  the  care  and  operation  of 
flying  machines.  Service  in  the  mounted  organizations  of  the  corps — 
field  and  telegraph  companies — in  addition  to  furnishing  knowledge 
along  the  lines  of  signal  corps  work,  adds  experience  in  the  care  and 
handling  of  animals  and  the  novelty  of  service  with  line  troops  of  the 
army. 

Whereas  it  is  of  course  evident  that  no  one  man  can  receive 
instruction  in  all  or  even  in  many  of  the  matters  taught,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  breadth  of  operation  of  the  corps  makes  the  practical 
experience  to  be  gained  more  extensive  and  varied  than  is  possible  in 
more  constricted  services  of  either  civil  or  military  life.  The  enlisted 
personnel  becomes  efficient  in  both  inside  and  outside  construction, 
coming  in  contact  with  practical  electricity  when  applied  to  com- 
munication in  all  its  aspects,  as  well  as  obtaining  physical  stamina 
by  reason  of  healthful  outdoor  work  and  exercises. 

Another  incident  to  service  in  the  signal  corps,  both  instructive 
and  agreeable,  is  the  opportunity  for  service  in  various  parts  of 
the  world,  the  extent  of  which  is  perhaps  offered  to  no  other  branch 
of  the  service.  The  care  and  operation  of  a  complete  network  of 
cable  and  telegraph  lines  and  radio  stations,  and  the  installation  of 
telephone  systems  take  them  to  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  the 
Canal  Zone,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Hawaii,  and  Alaska. 

After  30  years'  service,  signal  corps  men,  like  other  soldiers,  are 
entitled  to  be  retired  and  to  receive  monthly  during  life  three-quar- 
ters of  the  regular  pay  received  at  date  of  retirement,  with  additional 
allowances  for  clothing,  subsistence,  quarters,  fuel,  and  light.  A 
soldier  entering  the  service  at  the  minimum  age  of  18  years  may 
therefore  retire  before  he  is  50  years  of  age.  Should  a  noncommis- 
sioned officer  so  retired  have  reached  the  grade  of  master  signal 
electrician  he  will  have  a  pension  for  the  remainder  of  his  life  of 
$90  a  month ;  a  first-class  sergeant,  $67.50  a  month ;  a  sergeant,  $60.75 
a  month;  a  corporal,  $47.25  a  month,  while  a  cook,  first-class  private,, 
or  private  would  receive  $51.75,  $42.75,  and  $34.50  a  month,  respec- 
tively. It  follows  that  after  30  years  of  service,  even  if  the  soldier 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 


123 


has  saved  nothing  from  his  pay  or  allowances  during  the  time  of 
his  service,  he  will  still  have  accumulated  a  very  comfortable  income 
for  the  remainder  of  his  days.  A  number  of  men  retired  from  the 
signal  corps  have  obtained  responsible  and  well-paying  positions  in 
civil  life. 

The  grades  and  pay  of  enlisted  men  of  the  signal  corps  are  as 
follows : 


If  reenlisted  within  three  months. 


First 
enlist- 
ment. 

Second 
enlist- 
ment. 

Third 
enlist- 
ment. 

Fourth 
enlist- 
ment. 

Fifth 
enlist- 
ment. 

Sixth 
enlist- 
ment. 

Seventh 
and  sub- 
sequent 
enlist- 
ments. 

Master  signal  ele?trician  
First-class  sergeant 

$75.00 
45  00 

§79.00 
49  00 

$83.00 
53.00 

$87.00 
57.00 

$91.00 
61.00 

$95.00 
65.00 

$99.00 
69.00 

Sergeant  

36.00 

40.00 

44.00 

48.00 

52.00 

56.00 

60.00 

Corporal 

24.00 

27.00 

30.00 

33.00 

36.00 

39.00 

42.00 

Cook  

30.00 

33.00 

36.00 

39.00 

42.00 

45.00 

48.00 

First-class  private 

18.00 

21.00 

24.00 

27.00 

30.00 

33.00 

36.00 

Private 

15  00 

18.00 

21  00 

22.00 

23.00 

24.00 

25.00 

The  pay  of  enlisted  men  serving  in  Alaska,  China,  and  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  is  increased  20  per  cent,  and  a  further  increase  of  35  cents 
per  day  is  allowed  enlisted  men  of  the  signal  corps  employed  in 
Alaska  on  the  Alaska  cable  and  telegraph  system  for  periods  of  not 
less  than  10  days. 

All  enlisted  men,  in  addition  to  their  regular  pay,  receive  rations, 
quarters,  clothing,  fuel,  bedding,  medicine,  and  medical  attendance 
when  required. 

Owing  to  the  technical  and  professional  nature  of  the  service  in 
the  signal  corps,  a  large  proportion  of  the  enlisted  men  are  non- 
commissioned officers. 

About  one-third  of  the  entire  enlisted  strength  of  the  signal  corps 
are  professional  soldiers  who  expect  to  remain  in  the  service  until 
they  reach  the  retiring  age. 

More  than  60  per  cent  of  the  men  who  enlist  in  or  are  transferred 
to  the  corps  fail  to  reenlist  at  the  expiration  of  their  terms  of 
enlistment,  the  majority  of  whom,  no  doubt,  being  enabled,  as  a 


124  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

result  of  the  technical  training  and  experience  obtained  during  service 
in  the  signal  corps,  to  secure  lucrative  employment  in  civil  life. 

It  must,  therefore,  be  evident  that  service  with  the  signal  corps 
of  the  army  not  only  offers  an  excellent  career  for  young,  energetic, 
and  ambitious  men  and  affords  training  in  the  development  of  self- 
control  and  regularity  of  habits,  as  well  as  improvement  in  physical 
vigor,  but  extends  excellent  opportunities  for  advancement  in  many 
lines  of  mechanical  endeavor,  including  some  of  the  most  useful  and 
unlimited  occupations  falling  to  the  lot  of  man. 


NOTES  ON  THE  SERVICE  OP  INFORMATION 
IN  THE  ARMIES  OF  FOREIGN  NATIONS. 

THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  TELEGRAPH  TROOPS. 


125 


NOTES   ON   THE   ORGANIZATION   OF   TELEGRAPH    TROOPS   IN 
FOREIGN  ARMIES. 

The  notes  which  follow,  referring  to  the  signal  and  flying  services 
of  foreign  armies,  are  taken  from  the  best  available  sources  of  infor- 
mation at  the  time  of  writing,  but  under  present  conditions  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that  changes  are  many  and  frequently  made,  especially 
in  the  flying  corps.  Much,  however,  is  unchanged,  and  these  notes 
are  useful  and  interesting. 

GREAT    BRITAIN. 

The  army  signal  service  of  Great  Britain  has  been  recently  reor- 
ganized along  lines  that  are  similar  to  our  own.  The  data  that  fol- 
lows does  not  apply  to  the  special  units  organized  in  India  nor  the 
units  furnished  for  the  transmission  of  information  within  or  between 
permanent  fortifications.  The  means  furnished  for  communication 
in  permanent  fortifications  depend  upon  the  particular  situation  in 
each  case,  and  no  definite  organization  is  laid  down  for  this  purpose. 
The  communication  units  within  the  Indian  Army  are  based  on  the 
same  general  lines  as  of  the  main  force  at  home,  but  the  organizations 
that  are  attached  to  the  higher  units,  such  as  armies  and  corps,  have 
not  as  yet  (1914)  been  organized.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  serv- 
ice in  France  has  necessitated  the  assembling  of  such  units. 

The  army  signal  service  of  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  great  admin- 
istrative services  of  the  army.  It  is  commanded  by  a  director  of  army 
signals,  whose  instructions  are  given  by  the  general  staff.  Thus  the 
director  of  army  signals  occupies  an  analogous  position  to  our  chief 
signal  officer.  Representatives  of  the  director  are  assigned  to  the 
headquarters  of  the  inspector  general  of  communication,  an  army, 
cavalry  division,  infantry  division,  and  a  detached  brigade. 

The  service  is  organized  into  signal  squadrons,  troops,  and  com- 
panies. To  each  unit  is  furnished  the  necessary  equipment  for  the 

127 


128  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

particular  duties  which  it  may  be  called  upon  to  perform.  The 
assignment  of  the  signal-service  organizations  to  units  of  the  Army 
is  based  on  the  fact  that  commanders  are  charged  with  the  arrange- 
ments for  communication  between  themselves  and  their  subordinates. 
Consequently  units  of  the  signal  force  are  assigned  as  a  component 
part  of  the  various  tactical  units  down  to  and  including  a  brigade 
for  the  use  of  their  commanders,  as  circumstances  may  require.  This 
assignment  is  about  as  follows: 

For  a  cavalry  division:  One  signal  squadron. 

For  a  cavalry  brigade:  One  signal  troop. 

For  a  division :  A  divisional  signal  company,  consisting  of  four  sections ;  one 
section  for  divisional  headquarters  communication ;  three  sections  for  employ- 
ment within  a  brigade. 

For  an  army  and  for  general  headquarters,  as  circumstances  may  require: 
One  general  headquarters  signal  company,  an  army  headquarters  signal  com- 
pany, and  such  air-line,  cable,  and  radio  sections  as  the  character  of  the  cam- 
paign may  demand. 

For  the  lines  of  communication  signal  companies  are  furnished  in 
sufficient  number  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  situation.  They 
are  provided  by  the  signal  service  within  the  limits  of  the  command 
of  the  inspector  general  of  communication. 

The  details  of  organization  of  the  units  that  follow  were  those 
which  obtained  at  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war.  It  is  not  known 
what  changes  this  great  conflict  has  brought  about,  but  in  view  of  the 
special  nature  of  the  work  required  of  the  signal  units  in  trench 
warfare,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  changes  to  fit  the  particular  duties  at 
hand  have  been  made. 

In  general,  signal  units  attached  to  the  mounted  forces  make  use 
of  the  motorcycle,  the  horse,  the  bicycle,  visual  signaling,  wire  com- 
munication— both  telephone  and  telegraph — and  radio  stations.  The 
signal  unit  attached  to  a  division,  as  will  be  noted,  is  not  provided 
with  means  of  radio  communication.  The  army  signal  troops,  how- 
ever, use  in  addition  to  the  other  means  the  radio  section.  The  signal 
companies  on  the  line  of  communication  are  provided  with  motor- 
cycles, dispatch  riders,  and  with  permanent  material  for  telegraph, 
cable  lines,  etc. 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  129 

The  British  regulations  contain  a  provision  which  states  that  in 
case  the  personnel  at  the  disposal  of  the  director  of  army  signals 
is  not  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a  special  situation  the  general  staff 
is  charged  with  the  duty  of  furnishing  the  required  number. 
The  mounted  troops  attached  to  a  division  are  available  for  this 
purpose. 

In  addition  to  the  units  of  the  army  signal  service  furnished  for 
communication,  there  is  another  group  of  signalers  trained  to  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree  of  efficiency,  upon  whom  depends  the  com- 
munication within  and  between  the  units  of  less  strength  than  a 
brigade.  These  troops  are  a  component  part  of  the  unit  to  which 
they  are  attached.  They  are  commanded  by  the  adjutant  of  the 
unit,  or  by  an  officer  whose  peculiar  qualification  fits  him  for  the 
duty.  A  percentage  of  these  units  are  trained  only  as  signalers  in 
the  use  of  flag,  heliograph,  telephone,  and  buzzer  communication, 
and  a  percentage  are  trained  in  the  use  of  means  provided  for  visual 
signaling  only.  This  same  system  pertains  to  our  own  service,  but 
to  a  lesser  degree,  and  in  our  service  no  definite  rules  have  been  laid 
down  for  the  employment  or  command  of  the  individuals  as  a  unit. 

The  organization  of  the  units  of  the  army  signal  service  in  Great 
Britain  are  approximately  as  follows: 

The  signal  squadron,  whose  total  strength  is  about  200,  is  divided 
into  four  troops  averaging  about  42  individuals  each.  These  troops 
are  designated  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  and  correspond  in  a  measure  to  the 
sectional  divisions  of  our  field  battalion.  The  equipment  furnished 
to  them  is  practically  as  follows: 

Troop  A :  2  radio  wagons. 

Troop  B  :  2  wire  detachments,  furnishing  about  28  miles  of  line. 

Troop  G :  1  radio  wagon  and  three  radio  pack  outfits. 

Troop  D :  12  mounted  men,.  28  bicycles,  6  motorcycles,  and  2  motor  cars. 

The  normal  duties  that  fall  to  the  lot  of  these  troops  are  outlined 
by  regulations  as  follows : 

Troop  A:  Intercommunication  between  cavalry  and  divisional  headquarters, 
and  general  headquarters. 

Troop  B :  General  communication  within  a  division,  and  intercommunication 
with  the  permanent  telegraph  system  of  the  country. 
14689—15 9 


130  THE  SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

Troop  C:  Intercommunication  between  divisional  headquarters  and  brigades 
or  detachments  on  reconnaissance. 

Troop  D :  Provisional  signaling  and  orderly  messenger  duties  in  conjunction 
with  the  other  means  of  communication. 

The  signal  troops  with  the  cavalry  brigade,  whether  assigned  to 
a  division  or  not,  are  furnished  with  means  of  telephonic,  visual  sig- 
naling, and  messenger  service. 

The  signal  troop  for  a  cavalry  brigade  within  the  division  is  com- 
posed of  about  24  men,  whereas  the  troop  attached  to  a  detached 
mounted  brigade  is  composed  of  about  43  men.  The  divisional  signal 
company,  which  is  divided  into  four  sections,  has  a  strength  of  ap- 
proximately 7  commissioned  officers  and  186  enlisted  men.  For 
communication  within  the  division  30  miles  of  buzzer  line  are  fur- 
nished. For  visual  signaling,  orderly  duties,  etc.,  there  are  four 
mounted  men,  eight  bicyclists,  and  nine  motorcyclists. 

For  communication  within  the  infantry  brigades,  or  between  them 
and  the  artillery,  8  miles  of  line,  with  10  portable  telephones,  are 
furnished,  and  8  bicycles. 

The  headquarters  of  the  unit  attached  to  the  general  headquarters 
is  supplied  with  24  motorcycles  and  such  cable  and  wire  sections  as 
may  be  necessary  for  communication  between  general  headquarters, 
cavalry,  and  army  corps  headquarters,  and  headquarters  of  inde- 
pendent divisions  or  other  forces.  The  unit  attached  to  the  army 
headquarters,  designated  as  an  "Army  headquarters  signal  com- 
pany," is  supplied  with  18  motorcycles  and  such  air  line  and  cable 
sections  as  may  be  necessary  for  linking  the  corps  headquarters, 
division,  and  the  various  parts  of  the  porps. 

The  air-line  sections  referred  to  are  organized  into  three  sections 
of  two  detachments  each,  with  a  total  of  about  6  officers  and  205 
men.  The  unit  is  provided  with  material  for  the  erection  of  about 
20  miles  of  line,  with  the  necessary  instruments  and  operators. 

The  cable  section,  to  which  is  assigned  7  officers  and  179  men,  is 
equipped  to  set  up  and  maintain  20  miles  of  cable,  with  offices,  etc. 

The  radio  section  consists  of  3  officers  and  68  men,  operating  three 
radio  (wagon)  sets. 

The  signal  company  line  of  communication  is  not  organized  into  a 
unit  of  definite  size,  but  as  is  the  case  in  the  telegraph  battalion  of 


THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION.  131 

our  service  that  is  intended  for  use  on  lines  of  communication,  the 
organization  remains  to  be  dictated  by  the  circumstances  of  em- 
ployment. 

The  subjoined  tables,  with  the  explanatory  remarks,  outline  the 
personnel  and  equipment  that  are  maintained  within  the  tactical 
units  for  intercommunication  and  that  are  not  furnished  by  the  signal 
organization. 

The  various  types  of  artillery  organizations — that  is,  the  horse, 
field,  and  heavy  battery  or  regimental  artillery  organizations — in 
general  provide  within  themselves  the  necessary  means  of  communi- 
cation either  between  their  component  parts  or  organizations  of  other 
arms.  The  regulations  provide  that  this  equipment  is  primarily  in- 
tended to  maintain  communication  between  the  battery  commander 
and  his  battery,  but  when  favorable  circumstances  make  it  possible 
it  should  maintain  communication  between  the  artillery  brigade 
commander  and  the  divisional  artillery  commander  and  between  the 
artillery  and  infantry  operating  in  combination. 

Air  craft  are  not  attached  to  the  signal  service,  as  is  the  case  in 
the  army  of  the  United  States.  The  use  of  radio  apparatus  by  fliers 
is  regulated  by  the  director  of  army  signals  in  consultation  with  the 
general  staff  and  the  commander  of  the  Royal  Flying  Force. 

The  following  remarks  bearing  on  the  equipment  may  be  of  interest : 

The  air-line  is  a  bare  wire  erected  on  light  poles.  It  is  contem- 
plated that  a  detachment  of  12  men  should  erect  about  5  miles  of  this 
line  and  perform  an  average  day's  march. 

The  field  cable,  which  is  similar  to  our  field  wire,  is  insulated  and 
is  carried  on  reels,  either  in  wagons  or  on  packs. 

A  detachment  of  8  men  should  be  capable  of  laying  from  1  to  6 
miles  per  hour  of  field  cable,  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  country 
and  the  permanency  of  the  construction. 

The  radio  wagon  station  has  a  radius  of  GO  to  80  miles  and  the 
pack  stations  30  miles. 

Visual  signaling  is  carried  out  by  heliographs,  flags,  disks,  or 
lanterns. 

Horses,  bicycles,  motorcycles,  and  motor  cars  are  used  by  dispatch 
riders,  who  correspond  in  a  measure  to  the  orderty  used  in  our  serv- 


132 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 


ice.  The  British,  however,  make  a  distinct  feature  of  this  means  of 
communication  and  provide  special  training  for  such  individuals. 
Their  training  manual  contains  an  extensive  chapter  on  instructions 
for  dispatch  riders. 

Table  of  the  intercommunication  personnel,  telephone  equipment,  and  bicycles 
maintained  in  units  other  than  army  signal  organizations. 


Organizations. 

Officers  and  enlisted  men. 

Bicycles. 

JTeadcjuartors  cavalry  divisional  artillery  

7  rank  and  file  1 

3 
2 

1   ' 

Feadnuartors,  divisional  art.il  lerv  

do  '  

Headquarters,  divisional  engineers  

Cavalry  regiment 

(  1  sergeant  

<A  ran  i<  and  file  ? 

Cavalrv  squadron  with  division  

[27  rank  and  file  »  

f  3  rank  and  file2  

A  squadron  o'  Irish  horse        

\9  rank  and  file  3  

(1  rank  and  file  4 

/  

8 

3 
3 
3 
3 
1 

1 
1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 

6 

Horse  artillery  brigade: 

9  rank  and  file  5  ' 

Balterv                              .          

7  rank  and  file  7 

Ammunition  column 

3  rank  and  file  3 

Horse  artillery  1  attery     •  

!»  rank  and  file  5 

Ammunil  ion  'column  ' 

3  rank  and  file  3 

Field  anil  'cry,  brigade: 
1  'eadouarters     .'         

12  rank  and  file  5  6 

Battpry 

7  rank  and  file  7 

Ammunition  column  

5  rank  and  file  3    .  . 

Field  artillery  (howitzer)  brigade: 
1  'eadqua'rters 

12  rank  and  file  5  6 

Batterv           

7  rank  and  file  7  .. 

Ammunil  ion  column 

3  rank  and  file  3 

Ffeavv  artillery  battery 

8  rank  and  file  5  6 

divisional  ammunition  column    .  .    

fi  rank  and  file  3     . 

Fi^ld  souadron 

15  rank  and  fil  i  8 

Field  troop  

3  rank  and  file  3  

Field  company                                         

do.3  

i  ; 

2 
2 
1 

Bridging  train 

Infantry  oattalioo                               

1  1  sergeant  

{  16  rank  and  file1 

Divisional  tr-iin  

{30  rank  and  file  3 

Army  troops  train          .                  

Cavalry  field  ambulance 

4  rank  and  file  3 

Field  ambulance  

6  rank  and  file  8  

•  In  -hides  4  trained  signalers.                  6  Trained  in  signaling  and  telephonist's  duties. 
»  Trained  signalers.                                  6  Does  not  include  drivers  for  telephone  wagon. 
*  Trained  in  se.naphore  signaling.           7  Trained  in  semaphore  signaling  and  telephonist's  duties. 
4  Dispatch  riders. 

FRANCE. 


Unlike  the  signal  service  in  the  United  States  army  and  in  the 
army  of  Great  Britain,  the  French  corps  of  communication  is  not 
a  separate  establishment,  but  forms  a  part  of  the  engineer  troops. 
The  engineer  headquarters  in  Paris  maintains  general  charge  of  the 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  133 

military  telegraph  service,  while  the  lines  throughout  the  various 
districts  of  the  country  are  under  the  engineer  authorities  of  such  dis- 
tricts. In  time  of  war  units  of  the  telegraph  service  are  attached  to 
tactical  and  administrative  organizations,  and  are  placed  under  the 
control  of  the  commanders  of  these  organizations. 

The  telegraph  service  of  a  field  army  has  two  divisions — that  which 
supplies  communication  to  the  army  at  the  front  and  that  which  sup- 
plies communication  to  the  rear  of  the  army.  The  line  of  demarka- 
tion  is  determined  by  the  commanding  general  and  is  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  zone  of  the  line  of  communication  and  the  bases.  The 
first  line  is  under  orders  of  the  chief  of  staff,  and  a  field  officer  of  the 
engineers  on  the  staff  exercises  direct  supervision ;  the  second  is  under 
the  orders  of  the  director  of  etapes;  that  is,  the  general  officer  in 
charge  of  the  lines  of  communication  of  an  army.  Where  several 
armies  are  operating  along  different  lines  of  communication,  the  tele- 
graph services  for  these  armies  are  finally  consolidated  under  the  di- 
rection of  one  officer.  This  officer  prescribes  the  limits,  stations,  con- 
necting posts,  etc.,  for  each  line  of  communication.  Service  on  the 
line  of  communication  is  provided  by  one  or  more  telegraph  sections, 
the  personnel  of  which  are  reservists  who  belong  to  the  post  and  tele- 
graph department.  They  are  equipped  similarly  to  the  regular  tele- 
graph troops.  In  addition  to  maintaining  communication  within 
their  zone,  these  organizations  assist  at  times  in  the  construction  of 
lines  within  the  zones  of  the  army,  reinforce  with  their  personnel  the 
units  at  the  front,  and  maintain  in  engineer  parks  material  for  use  of 
units  serving  directly  with  the  army. 

The  telegraph  service  connected  with  the  operation  of  railroads 
is  maintained  by  the  railway  troops  themselves  and  forms  a  part  of 
this  system. 

The  radio  telegraph  stations  form  a  single  system  under  the 
orders  of  the  commander  in  chief.  Those  stations  that  are  placed 
with  each  army  are  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  of  telegraph 
service  of  the  army  and  maintain  communication  with  the  line  of 
communication  and  the  bases.  These  stations  also  communicate  with 
the  various  organizations  of  the  army,  and,  if  possible,  with  the 
headquarters  of  adjacent  armies. 


134  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

The  telegraph  lines  within  each  armj'  corps  are  under  an  engineer 
officer,  and  are  maintained  by  a  detachment  of  telegraph  troops. 
The  lines  established  maintain  communication  between  the  corps 
commander  and  his  superior  headquarters,  the  division  headquarters, 
cavalry  patrols,  and  detached  posts.  They  'also  maintain  communi- 
cation betweent*  corps  headquarters  and  its  trains,  parks,  etc.  The 
chief  of  staff  of  an  army  may  assign  radio  apparatus  to  assist  in 
this  communication. 

With  a  cavalry  division  is  also  attached  a  detachment  of  telegraph 
troops  under  the  command  of  an  engineer  officer.  This  detachment 
establishes  communication  between  the  cavalry  commander  and  the 
commanding  general  of  the  army,  as  far  as  practicable,  through  the 
stations  established  by  the  telegraph  service  of  the  front. 

The  chiefs  of  telegraph  service  of  the  first  and  second  lines  co- 
operate with  each  other  in  connecting  up  the  front  with  the  rear, 
and  where  the  duties  of  one  division  overlap  the  other  the  chief 
of  staff  of  the  army  concerned  is  requested  to  issue  any  instructions 
that  may  be  necessary. 

There  is  no  connection  in  the  French  army  between  the  telegraph 
service,  secret  service,  press  censorship,  or  the  correspondents  of 
journals. 

The  work  of  the  army  and  navy,  as  far  as  the  establishment  of 
radio  stations  goes,  is  harmonized  by  a  permanent  commission  of 
16  members  upon  which  the  army  and  navy  have  representatives. 
This  commission  operates  to  prevent  duplication. 

Telegraph  and  telephone  lines  to  permanent  fortifications  are 
under  the  charge  of  the  engineers.  Before  new  lines  are  established 
or  old  ones  altered  consultation  is  had  with  the  commanding  gen- 
ral  of  the  army  corps  in  whose  district  the  fortification  lies,  with 
the  commanding  officer  of  the  fortress  itself,  and  with  the  post  and 
telegraph  system  of  the  district;  in  the  several  great  war  ports  of 
France  the  navy  is  also  taken  into  consideration.  The  coast  defense 
lines  are  partly  under  the  army  and  partly  under  the  navy,  and  they 
can  be  utlilized  by  both  services.  All  the  lines  of  permanent  fortifi- 
cations are  established  and  operated  by  special  troops  of  the  tele- 
graph regiment. 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  135 

The  aviation  service  in  France  is  not  a  part  of  the  telegraph  service. 

Dirigibles  are  equipped  with  radio,  and  a  question  of  equipping 
aeroplanes  with  radio  was  under  consideration  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
present  war.  Transmission  of  information  obtained  by  air  craft  is 
provided  for  by  assigning  each  aviator  a  zone  within  which  he  is  to 
descend  and  forward  information  he  has  obtained.  He  is  furnished 
with  a  map  of  this  zone  showing  the  telegraph  and  telephone  sta- 
tions therein  and  the  infantry  and  cavalry  positions,  which  are  re- 
quired to  maintain  messenger  service  between  themselves  and  the 
nearest  radio  service.  Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war 
some  experiments  were  being  made  with  radio  equipment  for  aero- 
planes which  could  be  utilized  upon  landing  for  opening  direct  com- 
munication with  radio  stations  of  the  armies  or  corps. 

Telegraph  troops  of  the  active  army  of  France,  which  are  used  in 
time  of  war  with  tactical  units  down  to  and  including  the  brigade, 
are  formed  into  a  regiment  of  12  telegraph  companies,  each  company 
consisting  of  4  officers  and  140  men;  one  company  for  radio  work  of 
3  captains,  2  lieutenants,  and  220  men;  a  group  of  telephonists  for 
permanent  fortifications,  normally  about  1G6  men;  and  a  mounted 
company  of  3  officers  and  127  men  who  are  designated  "  sapeurs  con- 
ducteurs."  The  staff  of  this  regiment  consists  of  14  officers  and  57 
noncommissioned  officers  and  privates.  The  equipment  provided  for 
a  telegraph  company  attached  to  a  field  army  is  as  follows : 

Reel  carts  (1-horse) 0 

Wagons  (2-horse) 1 6 

Light  wagons  (2-horse) 12 

Construction  wagons   (4-horse) 12 

Baggage  wagons   (2-horse) 2 

Traveling  forge  (2-horse) 1 

Rack  wagon   (4-horse) 1 

Cable   wagons    (4-horse) 10 

Pole  wagons  (4-horse) 3 

Bicycles 24 

The  following  is  the  approximate  assignment  of  telegraph  and 
technical  troops  to  the  various  units  of  the  field  forces : 

To  a  group  of  armies  consisting  of  two  or  more  armies:  A  tele- 
graph detachment  attached  to  headquarters  consisting  of  1  officer, 


136  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

19  men,  2  wagons,  8  telephones  and  5  instruments  with  wire,  1  car- 
rier-pigeon outfit,  and  a  radiotelegraph  detachment  connecting 
headquarters  with  all  the  armies. 

To  one  army :  A  company  of  telegraph  troops  in  charge  of  a  field 
officer  assisted  by  a  captain  and  two  organizations  comprising  11 
officers,  80  noncommissioned  officers,  330  men,  53  wagons  for  service 
with  the  first  line,  and  apparatus  consisting  of  60  Morse  instru- 
ments, 116  telephones,  24  heliographs,  with  the  necessary  cable,  etc. 

A  section  of  telegraph  troops  under  an  officer,  consisting  of  4  offi- 
cers and  49  noncommissioned  officers  and  privates,  with  12  Morse  in- 
struments and  23  telephones,  may  be  attached  for  service  to  the 
second  line. 

With  each  army  corps  a  detachment  of  telegraphers  is  assigned  as 
follows :  One  officer,  2  noncommissioned  officers,  1  orderly,  for  head- 
quarters, 4  workshops  each  consisting  of  3  officers  and  8  men,  and  1 
wagon  carrying  1  Morse  apparatus,  4  telephones,  1  heliograph,  10 
kilometers  of  cable,  and  10  kilometers  of  wire. 

An  engineer  park,  which  includes  a  telegraph  detachment  of  8 
officers,  25  men,  2  bicycles,  6  wagons,  8  kilometers  of  light  cable,  and 
30  kilometers  of  copper-clad  wire,  is  also  attached  to  an  army  corps. 

For  units  smaller  than  a  brigade  or  infantry  battalion,  heliograph 
and  telephone  outfits  are  used  to  maintain  communication  between 
the  units  themselves  and  brigade  headquarters.  These  signalists  are 
not  under  the  orders  of  the  chief  of  telegraph  service.  In  the  cavalry 
regiments  the  signalers  are  trained  at  the  cavalry  school  at  Saumur. 
For  the  infantry  and  artillery  battalions  the  troops  who  operate  the 
telephone  equipment  are  detailed  from  these  respective  units.  In  the 
mountain  infantry  regiments  the  heliograph  is  also  used,  and  from 
these  latter  regiments  a  certain  number  of  officers  and  noncommis- 
sioned officers  take  short  annual  courses  in  optical  telegraphy  at 
Mount  Valerian,  the  station  of  a  regiment  of  telegraphers. 

Each  battery  of  artillery  is  equipped  with  2  telephones  and  500 
meters  of  wire.  Each  regiment  of  light  cavalry  has  2  kilometers  of 
line,  1  bicyclist,  and  4  signalists.  Four  signalists  are  also  attached 
to  each  infantry  regiment,  and  each  battalion  is  equipped  with  2 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  137 

telephones,  500  meters  of  wire,  and  the  necessary  equipment,  carried 
by  8  men.  Mountain  regiments  have  in  addition,  2  heliographs  and  6 
men  to  operate  them.  In  each  company  there  are  1  officer,  2  non- 
commissioned officers,  and  4  men  for  signaling. 

GERMANY. 

The  Germans  have  long  recognized  the  importance  of  communica- 
tion between  the  units  of  a  command,  and  consequently  have  per- 
fected an  organization  and  equipped  it  along  most  modern  lines. 

In  this  connection,  Maj.  Gen.  A.  W.  Greely,  former  chief  signal 
officer  of  the  army,  remarks  as  follows : 

Profiting  by  the  successful  operations  of  the  United  States  signal  corps  in  the 
Spanish-American  War  of  1898,  Germany  organized  in  1899  a  new  corps,  desig- 
nated as  "  Troops  of  Communication,"  which  was  Increased  in  1905. 

To  fully  develop  this  important  service  of  communications,  Germany,  with 
its  usual  thoroughness  and  practicality,  devoted  thereto  one  of  the  three  new 
courses  in  the  Technical  Military  Academy,  which  was  established  in  1903  for 
utilizing  to  the  utmost  modern  sciences  in  the  increasing  of  the  efficiency  of  the 
German  army. 

In  peace  the  entire  organization  of  military  telegraph  troops  is 
under  the  inspection  of  field  telegraphy,  Berlin,  which  comes  under 
the  command  of  the  general  inspection  of  military  communication 
affairs.  In  April,  1914,  the  organization  was  about  as  follows :  One 
inspector  major  general  and  2  adjutant  captains;  3  inspections,  the 
first  at  Berlin,  under  a  lieutenant  colonel  inspector,  with  1  telegraph 
battalion,  1  fortress  telephone  company,  and  a  telegraph  school;  the 
second  at  Karlsruhe,  under  a  colonel,  comprised  of  3  telegraph  bat- 
talions and  3  telephone  companies;  the  third  at  Danzig,  under  a 
lieutenant  colonel,  with  2  telegraph  battalions  and  3  fortress  tele- 
phone companies. 

In  war  the  telegraph,  telephone,  and  radio  formations  of  various 
strengths  are  attached  to  the  larger  units  of  commands.  The  stra- 
tegical lines  of  telegraph  and  telephone  systems  are  under  the  direc- 
tion generally  of  the  imperial  post-office  authorities,  who  cooperate 
with  .the  field  direction  of  the  telegraph  troops.  The  direction  of 


138  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

the  telegraph,  telephone,  and  radio  communication  within  a  body 
of  troops  is  invested  in  the  staff  officer  of  the  telegraph  troops  at  its 
headquarters.  He  has,  however,  control  only  in  technical  matters, 
working  through  army  headquarters  and  not  directly.  He  also 
works  through  army  headquarters  to  the  subdivisions  of  the  lines  of 
communication. 

The  telegraph  service  bears  no  relation  to  the  secret  service,  press 
censorship,  correspondents  of  journals,  nor  to  the  collection  of  in- 
formation. 

There  are  no  fixed  relations  between  the  field  telegraph  service 
and  the  aeronautical  service.  The  flyers  make  the  best  of  the  posi- 
tions and  situations  in  which  they  find  themselves,  and  use  the  exist- 
ing telegraph  lines  for  transmitting  information  they  have  collected. 

The  telephone  systems  in  cases  of  the  larger  fortifications  are 
under  the  administration  of  and  served  by  the  fortification  telephone 
company.  In  peace  time  the  higher  units  of  this  service  come  under 
the  inspection  of  fortifications  and  communication. 

The  service  connected  with  the  use  of  homing  pigeons  is  under 
the  control  of  the  third  division  of  the  engineer  committee.  A 
director  superintends  the  entire  service.  Each  homing-pigeon  station 
is  under  the  engineer  officer  of  the  fortification  to  which  it  is  attached. 

Invalided  noncommissioned  officers  are  in  charge  of  the  patrol 
stations  located  at  various  points. 

There  are  relations  existing  between  the  army  and  navy,  with 
regard  to  radio  telegraphy,  but  not  otherwise. 

Telegraph  troops  are  assigned  generally  upon  mobilization  as 
follows : 

To  armies :  One  large  radio  station,  1  army  telegraph  detachment, 
and  1  airship  fleet. 

To  army  corps:  One  corps  telegraph  detachment. 

Telegraph  organizations  are  not,  as  a  rule,  attached  to  units  smaller 
than  divisions. 

The  linking  up  of  the  attached  line  of  an  army  deployed,  or  partly 
deployed,  with  the  line  of  another  unit  takes  place  whenever  circum- 
stances require  such  action.  This  is  effected  by  army  headquarters 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  '139 

upon  receiving  such  recommendations  from  the  staff  officer  of  the 
telegraph  troops. 

The  higher  commands  and  the  troops  act  independently  as  to  the 
use  of  their  telephone  formations  and  troop  telephone  stations,  re-  % 
epectively.  The  laying  and  conduct  of  lines  from  brigade  head- 
quarters toward  the  enemy  comes  within  the  duties  of  the  fighting 
troops,  but  the  system  is  such  that  it  is  possible  to  transmit  informa- 
tion directly  from  the  line  of  fire  to  the  higher  commanders.  This 
is  done  by  signaling  with  flags  or  by  the  troop  telephones  connected 
up  to  the  telegraph  net  of  the  telegraph  troops. 

The  organization  of  the  units  of  the  telegraph  service  referred  to 
above  are  about  as  follows: 

Army  telegraph  detachment : 

Officers  and  men 1G5 

Wire,  field miles—    75 

Telegraph  instruments.- 12 

Telephones 18 

And  necessary  tools,  etc.,  for  the  establishment  of  12  telegraph  and  18 
telephone  stations  to  connect  general  headquarters  with  the  post  and 
telegraph  departments. 

Airship  fleet :  Consists  of  aeroplanes  and  dirigibles,  attached  to  the  mobile  forces 
and  is  organized  into  19  companies  with  1,500  officers  and  men.  Air  craft 
equipped  with  radio,  telephones,  sliding  cable,  carrier  pigeons,  photographic 
apparatus,  etc.,  for  the  collection  and  transmission  of  information  to  the 
ground  forces. 
Corps  telegraph  detachment,  consisting  of — 

Corps  telegraph  company,  with  lines  of  communication — 

Men 165 

Cyclists 10 

Automobiles 2 

Wagons 23 

Field  wire miles—    50 

Bare  wire do 15 

Telegraph  instruments 12 

Telephones 18 

And  necessary  tools,  etc.,  for  the  establishment  of  12  telegraph  and 
18  telephone  stations. 

Corps  telegraph  company,  with  lines  of  information — Same  personnel  and 
equipment  as  with  telegraph  company,  lines  of  communication. 


140  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

Field  signal  detachment,  connecting  commanders  in  battle,  or  with  outlying 
stations — 

Men 40 

Wagon 1 

Telephones. 
Radio  detachment — 

Men 40 

Automobile '. 1 

Wagons : 4 

Equipped  with  sets  with  a  radius  of  about  20  miles.    Used  in  com- 
municating between  army  and  navy,  between  army  headquarters, 
cavalry  division,  corps  headquarters,  and  for  transmission  of  intelli- 
gence from  dirigibles,  etc. 
Gas  column — 

Men 96 

Wagons 16 

For  communication  within  the  smaller  units  the  Germans  rely  upon 
personnel  trained  in  the  regiments  and  assigned  for  duty  with  bat- 
talion, regimental,  brigade,  and  divisional  headquarters,  as  circum- 
stances may  require. 

The  artillery  trains  its  own  personnel  for  intercommunication, 
but  this  means  is  rarely  used  except  for  communication  within  the 
artillery  units  themselves. 

The  cavalry  also  supplies  its  own  personnel,  and  is  furnished  with 
special  equipment  for  use  of  mounted  troops. 

The  following  notes  have  'been  compiled  from  reports  received,  but 
it  is  thought  that  they  do  not  include  all  individuals  trained  as  sig- 
nalists : 

From  each  infantry  company  there  are  detailed  for  duty  by  the 
regimental  commander  three  men,  who  are  specially  instructed  in 
signaling,  being  equipped  with  two  telephones. 

One  officer,  8  cyclists,  and  an  additional  equipment  of  5  miles  of 
field  wire  are  detailed  to  each  battalion. 

It  is  also  understood  that  one  of  the  company  officers  is  also  spe- 
cially trained  in  signaling.  Disregarding  these  company  officers, 
this  gives  a  total  available  within  the  brigade  as  follows : 

Officers _ 6 

Men_.  72 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  141 

Telephones 48 

Miles  field  Wire.— _______^_ 30 

Cyclists 40 

Within  a  cavalry  regiment  there  are  provided  1  officer  and  8  men 
supplied  with  a  wagon  for  carrying  2  telephones  and  about  8  miles 
of  wire,  also  2  light  field  telegraph  instruments  for  cutting  in  on  the 
enemy's  lines.  There  are  assigned  for  duty  with  a  cavalry  division — 

Officers  and  men 54 

Telephones 12 

Cycles  and  motors 36 

With  field  wire  and  a  small  supply  of  cable. 

Visual  signaling  equipment  is  carried  by  the  individual  cavalry 
organizations. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  military  telegraph  service  of  Austria-Hungary  is  furnished  in 
time  of  peace  by  a  telegraph  regiment,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Russian  organization,  is  an  integral  part  of  the  "  Communication 
Brigade."  This  brigade  is  composed  of  the  railway  regiment,  aero- 
nautic and  automobile  detachments,  and  the  telegraph  regiments.  In 
time  of  war  this  brigade  is  broken  up  and  the  units  assigned  according 
to  the  prescribed  plan  of  organization.  The  telegraph  regiment  pro- 
vides detachments  for  the  commander  in  chief,  the  army,  corps,  divi- 
sion, and  independent  brigade  headquarters.  The  troops  provide 
their  own  personnel  for  communication. 

The  organization  of  the  telegraph  regiment  in  time  of  peace  is  as 
follows : 

Regimental  headquarters. 

4  skeleton  battalions  of  4  companies  each ;  each  battalion  forms  a  telegraph 

school  for  training  the  130  men  present  with  it. 
1  radio  detachment,  88  men. 
A  school  for  one-year  reservists. 
A  depot  for  the  care  and  handling  of  supplies,  19  men. 

No  details  are  available  as  to  the  strength  or  equipment  of  the 
telegraph  detachments  assigned  to  fortresses,  but  it  is  known  that  the 
personnel  for  this  duty  is  trained  in  the  telegraph  regiment  and  is  a 
part  thereof,  as  is  also  the  personnel  employed  in  the  operation  of 


142  THE   SEBVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

radio  stations  in  certain .  fortresses.  The  fortresses  on  the  coast  are 
under  the  control  of  the  army,  and  when  provided  with  radio  sta- 
tions maintain  communication  with  the  fleet. 

As  the  telegraph  system  of  the  country  is  under  government  con- 
trol, messages  received  at  radio  stations  are  transmitted  by  the  public 
telegraph  service. 

The  strategical  lines  of  information  are  operated  by  detachments 
assigned  to  the  various  units  in  the  "  zone  of  the  advance."  In  time  of 
war  all  lines  within  the  Monarchy,  with  the  exception  of  the  service  in 
the  theater  of  operations,  are  placed  under  the  central  war  telegraph 
office  at  Vienna.  The  telegraph  service  in  the  theater  of  operations, 
which  includes  the  line  of  communication,  is  directed  by  the  chief  of 
the  field  telegraph  service.  With  the  supreme  commander  of  field  forces 
is  assigned  a  chief  signal  officer,  who  exercises  general  supervision 
over  the  service  of  the  army  in  the  field  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  of 
a  chief  signal  officer  of  an  army  in  our  organization.  Signal  officers 
are  assigned  to  the  armies,  corps,  divisions,  and  brigades. 

As  the  central  war  telegraph  department  controls  all  lines  of  com- 
munication in  the  country,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  censor  telegrams 
anc(  press  dispatches. 

The  telegraph  service  is  not  charged  with  the  duty  of  collecting 
information. 

In  time  of  war  upon  the  dissolution  of  the  telegraph  regiment  the 
following  units  are  formed : 

(a)  Field  telegraph  detachments  for  the  commander  in  chief, 
armies,  army  corps,  and  cavalry  divisions.  These  are  normally  uni- 
form in  strength  and  equipment  and  consist  of  a  headquarters  with 
4  sections  of  2  stations  with  12  miles  of  wire  each.  The  strength 
per  section  is  about  1  officer  and  33  men.  The  transportation  con- 
sists of  14  horses,  2  wire  wagons,  and  1  station  wagon.  The  primary 
function  of  these  units  is  to  maintain  communication  between  groups 
of  armies  for  short  periods. 

(5)  For  duty  requiring  an  organization  more  mobile  in  character, 
mountain  telegraph  detachments  are  formed.  The  organization  is 
approximately  as  follows:  A  headquarters  of  2  sections  each  with 
3  stations  and  12. miles  of  wire.  A  section  is  composed  of  1  officer 


THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION.  143 

and  39  men.  Nineteen  pack  animals  are  substituted  for  the  horse- 
drawn  vehicles  used  in  the  telegraph  detachment.  Eleven  of  these 
animals  carry  the  apparatus  and  cooking  utensils,  tools,  etc.,  while 
the  other  eight  transport  the  wire,  which  is  mounted  on  drums. 

(c)  Field  telephone  detachments.    The  telephone  detachments  of 
the  corps  and  divisions  use  either  wagons  or  pack  animals  for  trans- 
portation.    A  telephone  detachment  consists  of  a  commander  and 
4  sections,  each  of  2  stations  and  12  miles  of  wire.    To  each  section 
is  assigned  1  officer  and  20  men.    Four  wagons — 2  for  stations  and  2 
for  wire — or  7  pack  animals  furnish  transportation. 

(d)  The   division   telephone   detachments   are   organized   into   2 
sections  each  with  2  telephones,  2  signal  stations,  and  12  miles  of 
wire.    The  strength  is  the  same  as  the  corps  detachment,  but  2  pack 
animals  are  added  to  carry  the  signal  stations. 

(e)  Mountain  telephone  detachments  for  duty  with  the  mountain 
brigades  are  similar  in  character  to  the  divisional  organizations. 
They  are  supplied  with  an  additional  telephone  and  signal  station, 
and  use  only  pack  animals  for  transportation. 

(/)  The  field  radio  stations,  either  wagon  or  automobile,  are 
assigned  to  commands  when  necessary.  The  transportation  is  about 
as  follows :  One  wagon  for  giving  and  receiving  apparatus,  1  wagon 
for  motor,  and  several  wagons  for  mast  material,  according  to  the 
range  of  the  instrument. 

(g)  Special  telegraph  detachments  for  duty  with  army  commands 
are  supplied  with  the  following  equipment,  the  personnel  being  detailed 
as  reservists  from  the  state  telegraph  service :  Two  wagons,  2.4  miles 
of  river  cable,  4  telegraph  field  wagons  with  25  miles  of  wire,  2  field 
telegraph  wagons,  1  ration,  and  1  supply  wagon.  The  general  duties 
of  this  detachment  are  to  lay  river  cable,  to  make  repairs  to  existing 
lines  or  those  erected  by  advance  detachments,  and  to  furnish  repair 
material  to  the  telegraph  and  telephone  detachments  in  their  front. 

All  signal  detachments  function  under  their  immediate  com- 
mander, who  is  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  signal  officer  of  the 
unit  to  which  they  are  attached.  This  officer  is,  in  turn,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  chief  signal  officer  of  the  next  higher  unit. 


144  THE  SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

The  personnel  used  for  communication  purposes  in  the  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  artillery  regiments  are  trained  by  instructors  provided 
from  the  telegraph  regiment. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  smallest  command  to  which  a  telegraph 
detachment  is  assigned  is  the  corps  or  cavalry  division. 

The  telegraph  detachments  of  the  combat  troops  are  a  part  of  the 
strength  of  these  troops,  and  are  therefore  kept  with  their  command 
for  combat  purposes.  An  exception  to  this  general  rule  exists  in  the 
cavalry  regimental  telegraph  detachments,  as  these  detachments  may 
be  separated  from  their  immediate  command  for  use  with  cavalry 
divisions.  The  percentage  of  telegraph  personnel  to  the  effective 
strength  of  a  division  is  about  2.7  per  cent,  and  for  a  corps  about 
2.6  per  cent. 

The  following  tabulation  indicates  the  approximate  assignment  of 
communication  detachments  to  the  various  tactical  units : 

To  an  army: 

2  army  telegraph  detachments — 

Officers  and  men 300 

Horses 140 

Wagons 28 

Miles  of  wire. 100 

Telegraph  stations 16 

1  special  telegraph  detachment — 

Men 70 

Horses 40 

Wagons        10 

Miles  of  river  cable 2.  5 

Miles  of  wire 28 

To  a  cavalry  division: 

4  cavalry  regiments  to  a  division,  each  with — 

Telegraph  patrols  provided  with  2  telephone  instruments,  1  tele- 
graph key,  1  relay,  6  miles  wire 4 

Visual  signal  patrol  with  heliographs  and  acetylene  apparatus 1 

There  is  supplied  to  the  cavalry  division  from  the  peace-trained  tele- 
graph regiment — 

Telegraph  detachment 1 

Instruments . 8 

Miles  of  wire 50 

Visual  signaling  patrol  of  7  men,  mounted,  and  2  pack  animals 1 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  145 

To  an  army  corps :  Corps  telegraph  detachment  for  connecting  army,  army 
corps,  and  division  headquarters. 

Cavalry  telegraph  detachment  of  an  army  corps : 

Officers  and  men 8 

Telephones • 2 

Telegraph  instrument  and  relay 1 

Miles  of  wire , 6 

Infantry  division: 

1  telegraph  detachment,  used  for  connections  in  zone  of  combat — 

Telephone  stations 4 

Signal   stations 4 

Miles  wire 24 

(Pack  or  wagon.) 

Divisional  cavalry: 

Telegraph  patrol 1 

Telephones 2 

Miles  wire : 6 

Key  and  relay 1 

Visual  signaling  detachment 1 

Brigade  of  artillery,  for  each  battery : 

Telephone  stations 5 

Miles  wire : :. , 14 

Flag  signal  stations ; 5 

One  company  of  infantry : 

Telephone  patrol . 1 

Telephone  station,  equipped  with  1  microphone,   battery,  1  magneto 

telephone,  1  mile  wire  (station  used  within  company) 1 

Men 3 

Light  signal  stations : 2 

Petroleum  lamp 1 

Acetylene    lamp 1 

Flag  signal  patrols  of  3  men  each 4 

Information  is  not  available  as  to  the  number  of  men  attached  to 
battalion,  regimental,  and  brigade  headquarters. 

In  the  Austro-Hungarian  service  two  regiments  constitute  a  bri- 
gade, four  battalions  a  regiment,  and  four  companies  a  battalion. 
The  personnel  and  equipment  given  above  for  companies  is  undoubt- 
edly distributed  for  use  not  only  of  the  company,  but  of  the  battalion, 
regimental,  and  brigade  headquarters. 
14689—15 10 


146  THE  SERVICE  OP  INFORMATION. 

RUSSIA. 

The  great  Russian  reorganization  that  took  place  subsequent  to  the 
Russo-Japanese  War  affected  the  technical  troops  as  well  as  the  line 
of  the  army.  The  information  at  hand  indicates  that  the  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  signal  troops  was  along  very  excellent  lines  and  that  such 
equipment  as  has  been  recently  inspected  indicates  a  successful 
effort  has  been  made  to  organize  and  equip  all  troops  in  most  modern 
style.  The  organization,  stations,  and  information  in  general  concern- 
ing telegraph  troops  is  considered  by  the  Russian  government  as 
confidential,  and  information  thereon  is  not  officially  given.  It  is 
presumed  that  the  difficulty  of  translating  the  Russian  language  also 
accounts  in  a  measure  for  the  scarcity  of  detailed  information. 

The  Russian  telegraph  troops  are  not  organized  into  a  separate 
corps  in  time  of  peace,  but  as  in  several  other  of  the  European  armies 
are  attached  to  the  engineer  troops.  The  sapper  battalions  are 
organized  in  time  of  peace  by  the  consolidation  of  three  sapper  com- 
panies and  one  or  two  telegraph  companies.  In  war  this  battalion  is 
disbanded;  the  telegraph  company  is  attached  to  a  corps  headquar- 
ters, and  where  there  are  two  telegraph  companies  the  extra  one  is 
assigned  to  duty  with  army  troops.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  present 
war  reports  indicate  that  54  telegraph  and  7  radio  companies  were 
organized ;  most  of  these  were  stationed  in  European  Russia,  but  some 
were  in  the  Caucasus. 

In  addition  to  these  there  were  some  13  telegraph  sections  for  use 
in  fortresses.  These  sections  are  separated  from  the  companies  which 
are  assigned  to  units,  and  are  used  solely  for  the  maintenance  of 
communication  relating  to  permanent  fortified  posts. 

The  telegraph  companies  are  formed  of  two  radio  and  two  wire 
sections  each.  The  cable  sections  are  subdivided  into  those  that  can 
construct  aerial  lines  of  about  16J  miles  per  section,  and  those  that 
lay  field  cable  with  about  23  miles  per  section.  These  sections  are 
equipped  with  microtelephones  and  material  for  establishing  12 
telegraph  stations.  They  also  carry  6  heliographs  and  6  lanterns 
for  night  signaling. 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  147 

The  radio  companies  are  formed  of  two  platoons  with  three  mobile 
Marconi  stations  each.  In  addition  there  are  a  number  of  radio  tele- 
graph stations  established  in  fortresses  and  in  the  larger  ports  and 
towns  of  European  and  Asiatic  Russia.  These  are  partly  under 
orders  of  the  war  and  navy  departments,  and  are  served  by  detach- 
ments consisting  of  an  officer  and  from  12  to  30  men. 

The  special  troops  attached  to  fortresses  are  divided  into  sappers, 
miners,  telegraph  sections,  and  aviation  sections.  They  are  placed 
under  the  command  of  a  chief,  who,  in  turn,  is  under  the  orders  of 
the  fortress  commander.  Besides  these  detachments  the  fortresses 
are  provided  with  letter-pigeon  stations  and  permanent  radio  stations. 

Upon  mobilization  four  depot  battalions  of  technical  troops  are 
organized.  These  are  intended  to  replace  all  losses  of  technical  and 
fortress  troops. 

In  1912  revised  regulations  were  published  for  the  officers'  electro- 
technical  school;  the  intention  of  these  regulations  is  to  provide 
that  not  exceeding  40  officers  of  the  engineer  and  railway  troops  be 
detailed  each  year  for  a  course  extending  over  a  period  of  a  year 
and  eight  months  in  submarine  mine  explosives,  radio  telegraphy, 
telephones,  etc.  The  school  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  major 
general  with  a  considerable  corps  of  assistants.  Upon  mobilization 
it  is  contemplated  that  the  permanent  staff  of  the  school  expand  into 
a  reserve  electro-technical  battalion  of  four  companies,  one  of  which 
is  for  the  training  of  telephonists  and  telegraphists,  one  for  radio 
operators,  one  for  electrical  engineers,  and  one  for  miners. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  translation,  as  noted  above,  the  details 
in  the  organizations  of  the  telegraph  troops  have  not  been  obtained. 
It  is  stated  in  one  of  the  reports  available  that  a  signal  company  is 
composed  of  about  250  men.  The  assignment  of  telegraph  troops  and 
aviation  companies  to  an  army  is  normally  as  follows  : 

Telegraph  companies,  wire 2 

Telegraph  companies,  radio 2 

Telephone  section 1 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  an  army  is  composed  of  from  three  to  five 
army  corps. 


148  THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

It  is  probable  that  in  the  Russian  organization,  as  in  other  organi- 
zations, the  assignment  of  technical  troops  to  army  headquarters  is 
left  to  the  dictates  of  the  special  conditions  under  which  the  army 
may  be  serving.  The  army  corps  is  normally  composed  of  two 
infantry  divisions,  with  cavalry  and  artillery  attached.  One  tele- 
phone section  and  one  telegraph  company  are  supplied  for  each 
corps.  The  infantry  divisions,  composed  of  two  infantry  brigades, 
with  the  necessary  quota  of  cavalry  and  artillery,  are  supplied  with 
telephone  sections.  There  appears  to  be  no  assignment  of  technical 
troops  for  communication  purposes  to  units  smaller  than  a  division. 
Communication  between  the  brigade  and  the  division  is  undoubtedly 
maintained  by  the  divisional  units,  while  communication  between 
the  brigades  and  their  various  parts  is  maintained  by  men  detailed 
from  the  several  units  to  the  brigades. 

The  men  detailed  for  maintaining  intercommunication  between 
smaller  units  of  the  organization  have,  according  to  reports  of 
attaches,  reached  considerable  degrees  of  efficiency.  It  is  stated,  in 
fact,  that  the  new  regulations  with  reference  to  the  union  and  control 
of  the  service  of  information  effect,  perhaps,  one  of  the  best  organi- 
zations in  the  Russian  service.  Regimental  telephone  and  signal 
service  are  each  of  a  high  grade  of  efficiency.  An  incident  is  cited 
from  the  maneuvers  in  which  a  four-battalion  regiment  of  3,600  men 
deployed  for  an  attack  in  thick  underbrush,  where  it  was  impossible 
to  see  at  a  greater  distance  than  50  feet,  and  all  sections  were  con- 
stantly connected  by  telephone.  After  the  deployment  and  when  the 
regiment  debouched  from  the  edge  of  the  woods  for  an  attack  the 
work  of  the  telephones  was  immediately  supplanted  by  flags. 

The  information  detachments  of  the  infantry  regiments  are  formed 
of  messenger  and  telephone  sections.  The  former  section  in  a  regi- 
ment of  four  battalions  consists  of  1  noncommissioned  officer,  12 
mounted  men,  and  4  bicycles.  In  the  messenger  sections  of  an  infan- 
try or  Siberian  rifle  regiment  two  sections  are  under  the  orders  of 
the  regimental  commander  and  the  other  three  are  attached  to  the 
higher  staff.  The  telephone  section  has  in  war  30  men,  2  officers,  and 
2  carts.  It  can  lay  about  6  miles  of  wire.  For  each  company  there 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  149 

are  8  men  trained  as  signalists.  The  officer  in  charge  of  the  com- 
munication service  of  each  infantry  and  rifle  regiment  is  mounted. 

To  the  cavalry  regiment  is  attached  a  mounted  sapper  detach- 
ment, consisting  of  2  officers  and  16  men,  for  the  execution  of  the 
technical  work,  including  communication. 

In  the  light  batteries  there  are  two  1-horse  telephone  carts,  with 
personnel  for  maintaining  communication. 

In  the  horse  artillery  telephone  apparatus  is  packed  on  a  horse,  as 
is  also  the  case  in  the  mounted  batteries. 

The  field  howitzer  batteries  have  2  telephone  carts. 

There  is  no  regimental  artillery  organization  in  the  Russian  serv- 
ice except  in  the  fortress  artillery. 

ITALY. 

There  is  practically  no  information  available  relative  to  the  tele- 
graph troops  of  the  Italian  army.  We  know,  however,  that  tele- 
graph troops  are  assigned  to  army  corps  and  division  headquarters, 
and  it  is  therefore  safe  to  assume  that  communication  within  smaller 
units  is  provided  for  by  men  detailed  from  the  units.  In  peace  time 
the  telegraph  troops  form  part  of  the  engineer  department,  and  are 
organized  into  a  regiment  of  five  battalions.  It  is  from  these  troops 
that  units  are  provided  for  field  forces. 

TURKEY. 

The  latest  information  on  this  subject  indicates  that  the  reorgan- 
ization of  the  Turkish  army  that  followed  the  Balkan  war  was,  until 
1914,  uncompleted.  The  data  given  in  this  paper  is  more  nearly  cor- 
rect for  the  ultimate  organization  of  the  telegraph  troops  than  for 
the  organization  at  the  present  time  (1914).  It  may  be  remarked 
that  under  the  direction  of  the  German  mission  accredited  to  the 
Turkish  army  the  telegraph  troops  will  undoubtedly  be  finally  or- 
ganized as  nearly  as  possible  along  the  lines  followed  by  Germany. 

The  telegraph  service  of  Turkey  is  a  separate  branch,  under  the 
war  department.  No  information  is  available  as  to  the  details  of  ad- 
ministration of  this  branch.  In  Turkey  the  telegraph  system  is  under 


150  THE   SEKVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

the  control  of  the  government,  and  it  is  believed  that  in  time  of  war 
the  strategical  lines  would  remain  under  such  control. 

Whilst  at  present  (1914)  there  is  no  official  censorship  beyond  the 
fact  that  telegrams  are  watched  by  officals  of  the  department  of  the 
interior,  it  is  believed  that  during  the  war  a  military  censorship 
would  be  established  which  would  be  closely  related  to  the  telegraph 
service. 

Special  organizations  exist  for  lines  of  information  in  permanent 
fortifications,  and  it  is  thought  that  they  are  under  the  signal  service. 

During  the  Balkan  war  provisional  relations  were  established  be- 
tween the  army  and  navy,  but  there  are  no  such  relations  regularly 
maintained.  The  details  of  the  relations  between  the  aviation  service 
and  the  telegraph  service  had  not,  up  to  1914,  'been  developed. 

An  aeroplane  and  balloon  school  was  established  in  the  district  of 
the  army  corps  at  Constantinople. 

The  tactical  organization  of  the  telegraph  service  is  the  telegraph 
company.  This  unit  is  attached  to  field  armies  and  army  corps.  It 
is  divided  into  four  sections  so  that  detachments  may  be  provided  for 
cavalry  divisions  and  independent  divisions.  The  principal  duty  of 
the  company  attached  to  an  army  corps  is  to  maintain  connection  be- 
tween the  corps  headquarters  and  the  field  army,  and  after  that  within 
the  corps  itself.  It  is  probable  that  detachments  from  the  company 
maintain  ccmmunication  between  units  smaller  than  divisions  where 
circumstances  dictate.  The  company  assigned  to  duty  with  an  army 
connects  the  army  with  the  headquarters  of  the  commander  in  chief, 
and  until  the  lines  on  the  line  of  communication'have  been  constructed, 
connects  the  army  with  the  permanent  lines  of  the  country. 

The  tactical  control  of  telegraph  troops  attached  to  the  various 
units  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  chief  of  staff  who  initiates  in- 
structions to  the  subdivisions.  The  chief  signal  officer  attached  to  the 
headquarters  communicates  directly  with  the  commander  of  the  tele- 
graph units  upon  matters  concerning  personnel  and  materiel  only. 

In  1914  there  were  10  telegraph  companies  organized;  in  addition 
there  was  a  radio  battalion  and  a  telegraph  detachment  at  the  Fort- 
ress of  Adrianople. 


THE   SERVICE    OP   INFORMATION.  151 

The  number  of  telegraph  companies  organized  is  not  sufficient  to 
furnish  troops  for  assignment  to  tactical  units  as  laid  down  in  regula- 
tions, and  several  new  units  will  have  to  be  formed  before  the  proper 
quota  can  be  supplied. 

A  telegraph  company  consists  of  5  officers  and  101  men.  The  trans- 
portation section  attached  to  it  is  composed  of  1  officer,  51  men,  88 
animals,  and  12  bicycles.  As  has  been  stated,  the  company  is  divided 
into  four  sections,  each  section  being  equipped  as  follows : 

Telegraph  instruments 3 

Telephones G 

Kilometers  of  cable 25 

Kilometers  of  thin  wire  and  double  cable 20 

Kilometer  of  copper  wire 1 

The  thin  wire  is  employed  in  the  provisional  establishment  of  tele- 
phones, and  the  copper  wire  is  used  for  repair  work.  The  cable  and 
copper  wire  are  reported  as  being  very  durable,  while  the  thin  wire 
is  not. 

A  construction  detachment,  which  is  understood  to  mean  a  section, 
consists  of  1  officer,  3  noncommissioned  officers,  4  telegraphers,  and  14 
privates. 

No  reliable  data  could  be  obtained  with  reference  to  the  use  or  train- 
ing of  special  individuals  within  the  smaller  tactical  units  for  com- 
munication. In  fact,  it  is  not  known  whether  any  system  exists  for 
supplying  such  means  of  communication,  but  from  a  study  of  the  or^ 
ganization  of  the  telegraph  company  it  is  apparent  that  this  company 
will  not  maintain  communication  further  than  brigade  headquarters, 
and  it  is  therefore  thought  that  within  a  brigade  the  plan  is  to  use 
a  system  similar  to  that  provided  by  the  Germans — that  is,  training 
individuals  from  combatant  troops. 

JAPAN. 

The  experiences  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war  indicated  to  the  Japa- 
nese authorities  that  a  reorganization  of  their  telegraph  corps  was 
desirable.  Experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  perfecting 
the  reorganization  and  undoubtedly  by  this  time  it  has  been  com- 
pleted. The  exact  details  of  the  reorganization  are  impossible  to 


152  THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION. 

obtain,  as  the  Japanese  War  Department  has  declined  to  give 
any  information  at  all  with  reference  to  their  telegraph  corps. 
We  are  therefore  obliged  to  obtain  our  information  from  other 
sources,  which  naturally  limits  both  the  scope  and  the  accuracy. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  following  information  is  fairly 
accurate. 

The  telegraph  corps  of  the  Japanese  army  is  a  part  of  the  "  com- 
imunication  brigade,"  which  is  composed  of  a  railway  regiment  and 
a  balloon  corps,  in  addition  to  the  telegraph  company.  In  peace  time 
the  telegraph  corps  is  under  the  orders  of  the  commanding  general 
of  the  imperial  guards  division  as  regards  its  training.  In  war  time 
it  is  assigned  by  the  chief  of  the  general  staff  to  units  of  troops. 

The  tactical  organization  of  this  telegraph  corps  consists  of  a 
headquarters  and  eight  companies,  with  the  following  organization: 

Field  and  staff  (all  are  engineer  officers,  detailed  for  this  duty  temporarily)  : 

Colonel 1 

Lieutenant  colonel 1 

Majors 3 

Captains 3 

Captain   (adjutant) 1 

Company  officers  (all  engineer  officers,  detailed  for  about  three  years)  : 

Captains 8 

First  lieutenants 19 

Second   lieutenants 13 

Telegraph  company   (enlisted)  : 

Noncommissioned  officers 10 

Privates 150 

The  total  strength  of  the  corps  is  about  1,300  men.  The  privates 
in  this  corps  serve  about  two  years  and  are  armed  as  infantrymen. 

The  corps  is  used  for  handling  radio  apparatus  and  searchlights, 
in  addition  to  its  normal  duties  when  assigned  to  troops.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  about  100  horses.  The  amount  of  materiel  supplied  is 
not  known.  Remarks  as  to  the  character  of  the  equipment  will  follow 
later. 

The  units  of  this  corps  in  war  time  are  attached  to  army  head- 
quarters only,  the  communication  between  other  units  being  fur- 
nished by  signalmen  detailed  from  the  regiments.  It  has  been  re- 


THE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  153 

ported  that  owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  results  from  this  system  the 
strength  of  the  telegraph  company  was  to  be  increased,  and  it  was 
to  be  assigned  to  divisions.  The  latest  reports,  however,  state  that 
units  smaller  than  an  army  are  connected  up  by  detailed  men. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  army  corps  is  omitted  in  the  Jap- 
anese organization. 

The  number  of  men  and  amount  of  equipment  attached  to  units 
smaller  than  an  army,  for  communication  purposes,  is  approximately 
as  follows: 

For  a  division,  150  men,  detailed  from  its  battalion  of  engineers 
and  infantry  regiments.  Equipment  unknown. 

For  an  infantry  regiment,  1  officer  and  27  men.  Equipment  6^ 
miles  of  telephone  wire  and  6  telephones.  Transportation,  6  pack 
horses. 

For  a  cavalry  regiment,  1  officer  and  27  men.  Equipment,  25  miles 
of  telephone  wire  and  6  telephones. 

Each  artillery  regiment  has  its  own  personnel  and  equipment  for 
telephone  service,  the  details  of  which  are  unknown. 

The  fortress  artillery-  provide  their  own  personnel  and  equipment. 
About  50  men  from  this  branch  of  the  service  are  attached  to  the 
telegraph  corps  each  year  for  a  course  of  instruction  covering  seven 
or  eight  months. 

The  telegraph  organization  for  a  strategical  line  of  information  is 
unknown.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  commander  of  the  tele- 
graph service  of  an  army  unit  exercises  control  over  the  telegraph 
units  in  the  rear  of  the  army. 

No  information  can  be  obtained  with  regard  to  the  relationship 
between  the  telegraph  service,  the  secret  service,  the  press  censorship, 
the  correspondents  of  journals,  and  the  collection  of  information. 
Some  relationship  exists  between  the  telegraph  service  and  the  avia- 
tion service,  but  the  extent  of  this  relationship  is  not  known. 

The  aviation  service  in  general  appears  at  the  present  time  (1914) 
to  be  in  the  hands  of  a  commission  of  investigation.  It  has  been  re- 
ported that  radiotelegraphy  was  used  in  connection  with  aeroplanes 
and  balloons. 


154  THE   SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION. 

The  following  general  remarks  on  the  Japanese  telegraph  corps 
and  parts  of  the  equipment  furnished  thereto,  extracted  from  a  re- 
port from  one  of  our  signal  officers,  made  in  the  fall  of  1911,  may 
be  of  interest. 

The  Japanese  do  not  adapt  themselves  readily  to  work  required 
of  the  telegraph  corps.  Considerable  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
training  the  officers  and  men  for  this  particular  work.  Each  year  a 
number  of  officers  from  the  various  branches  of  the  service  are  sent 
to  the  telegraph  school  for  a  course  of  two  years'  instruction.  It  has 
been  reported  that  about  GO  per  cent  of  the  number  so  detailed  are 
returned  to  their  regiments  as  inefficient.  Undoubtedly  the  short 
period  of  enlistment  for  their  conscripts  is  one  of  the  causes  of  the 
difficulty  in  obtaining  trained  men  for  this  corps. 

The  use  of  lance  lines  is  common  in  the  Japanese  army.  The  line 
platoon  of  two  sections  of  about  TO  men  and  40  one-horse  carts  car- 
ries about  12  miles  of  line.  The  reels  for  this  wire  are  wound  on  a 
frame  carried  on  the  men's  shoulders.  The  wire  is  placed  on  lances 
after  they  have  been  erected.  The  section  turned  out  for  inspection 
ran  nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  40  minutes. 

For  their  field  work  one-horse  carts  are  provided,  which  hold  4 
miles  of  wire  on  small  reels.  These  reels  can  be  placed  in  a  frame 
to  be  carried  on  the  men's  backs.  In  laying  wire  over  fire-swept 
zones  the  men  work  in  pairs,  each  carrying  one-third  mile  of  wire. 
One  only  of  each  pair  lays  the  wire,  thus  providing  at  all  times  a 
double  amount  of  wire  for  repairs  or  other  purposes. 

The  Swedish  cavalry  buzzer  is  used,  which  is  similar  to  that  in  our 
service. 

The  wire  used  is  a  copper-clad  insulated  wire  weighing  about  50 
pounds  per  mile.  A  heavier  weight  of  about  150  pounds  per  mile 
is  used  along  roads  or  crossing  streams.  Neither  of  these  wires  are 
as  satisfactory  as  that  issued  in  our  service. 

Buzzer  wire  is  furnished  principally  for  use  by  the  cavalry,  al- 
though some  is  carried  by  companies.  This  wire  is  carried  on  breast- 
plate reels  of  aluminum. 


THE  SERVICE  OF  INFORMATION.  155 

Four  wagon  radio  outfits  with  a  radius  of  about  150  miles  and  two 
pack  radio  sets  have  been  reported  on.  It  is  stated  that  the  Tele- 
funken  sets  are  to  be  increased  as  rapidly  as  funds  become  available. 

There  are  two  systems  of  visual  signaling — the  semaphore  and  the 
wigwag.  The  equipment  is  reported  as  "  primitive,"  and  it  is  de- 
duced from  this  fact  that  a  great  reliance  is  to  be  placed  upon  buzzers 
and  telephones. 

Their  night  signaling  lamps  are  of  French  manufacture  and  are 
manipulated  with  key  and  shutter.  The  heliographs  are  also  of 
French  manufacture;  they  are  of  an  old  type,  heavy,  and  cumber- 
some. 

The  field  searchlight,  which  is  handled  by  telegraph  troops,  is 
complete.  It  is  equipped  with  about  22  and  30  inch  projectors.  The 
set  inspected  had  a  generator  of  about  20  horsepower  for  furnishing 
18  amperes  at  550  volts,  and  was  mounted  on  a  wragon  drawn  by  6 
horses.  The  light  is  mounted  on  a  four-wheel  truck,  with  about  500 
meters  of  cable.  It  is  drawn  by  four  horses.  Additional  cable  is  pro- 
vided on  two-wheel  horse-drawn  carts.  Gold-plated  brass  reflectors 
are  used  in  place  of  silvered  mirrors,  as  when  struck  by  bullets  the 
former  are  merely  perforated,  while  the  latter  are  shattered  and 
rendered  useless. 

Portable  observation  towers  about  15  meters  high,  mounted  on  six- 
horse  trucks,  are  also  provided. 

The  organizations  within  the  regiments,  used  for  intercommunica- 
tion between  units  smaller  than  an  army,  are  to  be  instructed  at  the 
station  of  telegraph  troops — Nakano.  This  at  present  is  only  carried 
out  with  a  portion  of  these  troops. 

Little,  if  any,  information  of  value  has  been  reported  with  refer- 
ence to  the  balloon  and  aeroplane  equipment  of  the  Japanese  army. 
We  only  know  that  they  have  both  aeroplanes  and  balloons,  and  that 
one  Parseval  airship  of  8.5  tons  is  in  their  possession.  It  will  be 
recalled  that  balloons  for  observing  artillery  fire  were  used  at  Port 
Arthur.  As  has  been  noted  above,  the  subject  of  aeroplanes  and  their 
tactical  organization  is  in  a  formative  stage. 


THE  ORGANIZATION  AND  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE 
FLYING  CORPS  OF  FOREIGN  ARMIES. 


157 


NOTES  ON  THE  OKGANIZATION  AND  EQUIPMENT  OF  THE  FLYING 
COUPS  OF   FOREIGN  ARMIES. 

GREAT  BRITAIN. 

All  matters  connected  with  aeronautics  are  in  the  hands  of  the 
Royal  Flying  Corps.  This  corps  is  divided  into  two  wings — the  naval 
wing  and  the  military  wing. 

The  naval  wing  is  administered  by  a  director  of  the  air  department 
at  the  Admiralty.  On  January  1,  1914,  all  airships  in  the  hands  of 
the  army  were  turned  over  to  the  navy.  This  policy  was  adopted 
mainly  for  economical  reasons,  as  it  was  thought  that  the  develop- 
ment of  airships  could  be  better  handled  by  the  navy.  There  were 
(1014)  4  sea-plane  stations  in  England  and  2  more  in  course  of  erec- 
tion in  Scotland.  It  was  the  intention  to  increase  the  number  of  these 
stations  so  as  to  continue  the  line  to  the  north  of  Scotland  and  to  fill 
up  gaps  along  the  east  coast.  One  hundred  and  nine  sea  planes  and 
aeroplanes  were  in  the  possession  of  the  Admiralty,  and  20  more  had 
been  ordered.  These  planes  were  both  French  and  British  type. 
There  is  a  naval  flying  school  at  Eastchurch,  equipped  with  some  50 
machines. 

The  military  wing  is  administered  by  the  director  of  military  aero- 
nautics at  the  wTar  office,  who  also  directs  the  central  flying  school, 
which  is  used  jointly  by  the  army  and  navy. 

In  1912  important  changes  were  announced  with  regard  to  the 
reorganization  of  the  British  aviation  service.  The  military  wing 
was  to  consist  of  7  aeroplane  squadrons,  with  the  necessary  personnel, 
and  an  eighth  squadron  was  to  be  organized  and  equipped  with  bal- 
loons and  kites.  The  reserve  was  to  be  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
first  to  consist  of  those  who  performed  a  number  of  flights  across 
country  in  each  quarter  and  received  a  retainer  fee,  and  the  second  to 
consist  of  those  who  did  not  make  the  prescribed  number  of  flights 
but  who  were  available  in  the  time  of  war.  The  army  and  navy 

159 


160  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

wings  were  to  be  placed  on  a  war  footing  and  to  be  so  maintained  at 
all  times — in  peace  and  war  the  establishments  were  to  be  the  same. 

The  Naval  Annual  for  1914  states  that  Great  Britain  had  1  battle 
airship,  7  mine  laying  and  scout  airships  completed,  and  7  building. 
Some  of  the  completed  airships  were  reconstructed  machines  and 
were  used  for  training  purposes  only.  The  Annual  states  that  there 
were  about  250  efficient  aeroplanes  and  sea  planes  in  the  possession 
of  Great  Britain. 

Subdivisions  of  the  military  wing  are  attached  to  divisions,  corps, 
and  armies,  as  circumstances  may  require.  The  wing  is  divided  into 
aeroplane  squadrons,  which  consist  of  a  headquarters  of  7  officers 
and  14  men,  and  three  flights  of  4  officers,  7  noncommissioned  officers, 
and  32  mechanics  and  assistants  each.  There  are  12  planes  attached 
to  a  squadron.  The  transportation  that  accompanies  a  squadron  is 
as  follows: 

Light  aeroplane  tender  for  headquarters  and  2  for  each  of  the  three  flights 1 

Heavy  aeroplane  tenders  for  each  of  the  three  flights 2 

Motor-repair  lorries 2 

Shed  lorries,  with  trailers ! 6 

Reserve-equipment  lorries 3 

Motorcycles : 6 

With  a  supply  train  is  1  motor  lorry  carrying  supplies  for  head- 
quarters. 

There  is  also  a  "headquarters  detachment"  of  the  military  wing, 
which  is  attached  to  divisions,  corps,  or  armies,  as  circumstances  may 
require,  and  which  consists  of  3  officers,  11  men,  and  2  motors. 

Although  in  1914  the  airships  were  transferred  to  the  navy,  as  has 
been  previously  stated,  the  recent  field  service  regulations  indicate  the 
presence  of  an  airship  and  kite  squardon,  which  consists  of  two  air- 
ships and  two  flights  of  kites.  The  headquarters  of  this  force  com- 
prises 1  officer  and  11  men ;  to  the  airships  are  assigned  8  officers  and 
98  men,  and  to  the  kites  4  officers  and  87  men.  The  transport  of  the 
airships  is  composed  of  1  light  airship  tender  for  headquarters,  and 
2  for  light  4-motor  gas  wagons ;  2  repair  lorries ;  2  portable  moving 
mast  lorries;  4  heavy  airship  tenders,  and  4  motor  cycles.  These 
vehicles  are  attached  to  the  first  line  of  transportation.  With  the 
train  is  one  motor  lorry  for  baggage  supplies.  For  first-line  tans- 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  161 

portation  of  the  kites  there  are  2  carts,  6  wagons    (horse-drawn 
vehicles),  and  4  bicycles. 

On  the  line  of  communication  is  established  a  flying  depot,  the  per- 
sonnel of  which  consists  of  3  officers  and  67  noncommissioned  officers 
and  men ;  1  motor  car,  and  a  gas  train  consisting  of  a  tractor  and  3 
trucks  are  attached  to  this  unit. 

FRANCE. 

In  1912  France  began  to  make  serious  efforts  to  place  itself  in  an 
advantageous  position  with  regard  to  military  aeronautics.  The 
minister  of  war  during  that  year  made  a  notable  speech  before  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  outlining  the  necessity  for  preparedness  in 
this  branch  of  the  military  service,  and  the  general  plan  he  pro- 
posed to  adopt  to  create  an  efficient  organization.  He  asked  for  a 
total  of  $6,400,000,  to  be  spent  in  the  calendar  year  1912,  $1,600,000 
of  which  was  for  dirigibles.  This  money  was  granted,  and  in  addi- 
tion popular  subscriptions  were  received,  which  during  the  first 
month  alone  netted  some  $400,000.  The  plan  as  outlined  by  the  min- 
ister of  war  was  adopted  in  its  greater  part.  However,  from  time 
to  time  since  that  date  experience  has  dictated  changes  of  its  organi- 
zation. These  changes  have  been  effected  and  are  incorporated  in 
the  last  order  on  organization,  which  was  issued  on  April  24,  1913. 
This  order  is  one  of  the  last  on  organization,  and  is  quoted  in  toto. 

In  February,  1914,  it  was  stated  that  the  consolidation  of  the  avia- 
tion and  aerostatic  services  had  been  a  mistake,  and  a  decree  was 
issued  creating  two  posts  of  the  ministry  of  war,  one  to  be  known  as 
the  technical  inspector  of  aviation  and  the  other  as  the  technical 
inspector  of  aeronautics.  These  officers  were  not  to  exercise  com- 
mand of  troops,  but  to  perform  technical  duties,  such  as  making  in- 
spections of  troops  and  material,  making  studies  of  improvements 
and  extensions,  and  keep  in  touch  with  technical  instruction.  About 
the  same  time  a  decree  was  issued  creating  a  "superior  council  of 
military  aeronautics."  The  duty  of  this  council  was  to  coordinate  the 
Efforts  of  the  government  and  private  parties  toward  securing  prog- 
ress in  both  the  science  and  technic  of  military  aeronautics.  This 
14689—15 11 


162  THE   SERVICE    OF  INFORMATION. 

council  was  composed  of  the  following  officials :  The  minister  of  war, 
president  of  the  council;  4  senators,  4  deputies;  4  members  of  the 
Institute  of  France;  4  technical  representatives  of  aviation;  the 
chief  and  assistant  chief  of  staff  of  the  army;  the  chief  of  staff  and 
the  chief  of  section  of  the  second  staff  of  the  navy;  the  director  of 
aeronautics;  the  minister  of  public  works;  a  representative  of  the 
minister  of  the  colonies;  the  director  of  postal  administration;  and 
the  director  of  military  aeronautics  of  the  army,  who  is  made  recorder 
of  the  council.  Two  officers  of  the  army  aviation  service  are  made 
secretaries. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  order  hereafter  quoted,  the  troops  are 
divided  into  companies  and  sections.  The  aerostatic  organizations 
are  divided  into  sections,  while  the  aviation  sections  are  divided  into 
flotillas  or  squadrons.  The  division  of  the  flotilla  (or  squadron)  is 
the  unit  assigned  to  the  various  tactical  organizations  in  time  of  war. 
It  consists  of  four  sections,  each  with  2  aeroplanes,  2  tractors,  1  truck, 
1  work  truck,  and  2  automobiles,  with  55  men,  who  are  provided  in 
addition  to  the  observers.  A  company  of  aerostatic  troops  (3  officers 
and  108  men)  is  also  assigned  for  use  of  troops  upon  mobilization. 
Aviation  detachments  are  attached  to  cavalry  divisions,  army  corps, 
and  armies. 

Throughout  the  entire  organization  the  French  have  never  lost 
sight  of  the  fact  that  the  study  of  the  subject  of  aviation  was  in  its 
infancy,  and  in  their  plans  and  in  the  bills  for  the  furtherance  of 
these  plans,  the  provisions  for  organization,  equipment,  etc.,  have 
been  most  general,  allowing  great  latitude  in  their  application. 
Where  experience  has  shown  necessity  for  change  there  appears  to 
have  been  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  the  necessary  legislation  and 
funds. 

Continuous  effort  has  been  made  in  the  French  service  to  perfect 
«fficers  as  observers.  In  1911  corps  commanders  were  directed  to 
select  from  among  the  general  staff  officers  under  their  command 
those  who  desired  to  perfect  themselves  as  observers  and  recommend 
them  for  a  course  of  instruction  with  the  balloon  corps.  Senior  first 
lieutenants  or  young  captains  were  to  be  given  preference.  The 
requirements  for  military  aviator  certificates  are  as  follows : 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  163 

The  tests  are  of  two  kinds,  practical  and  theoretical. 

The  practical  test  consists  of  a  triangular  flight  of  at  least  125 
miles  effected  on  the  same  machine  in  not  more  than  48  hours,  with 
two  intermediate  landings — this  to  be  obligatory  and  announced  in 
advance.  The  shortest  side  of  the  triangle  must  be  at  least  12£  miles. 

A  flight  of  at  least  93  miles  in  a  straight  line  over  a  course  indi- 
cated in  advance,  without  landing. 

A  flight  with  the  same  machine  of  at  least  93  miles  in  a  straight 
line  over  an  itinerary  indicated  in  advance,  with  landing  permitted. 

During  these  tests  the  pilot  must  make  a  flight  of  at  least  45 
minutes'  duration  at  an  altitude  nearly  constant  of  at  least  2,600  feet. 
If  atmospheric  conditions  prevent  this  flight  at  high  altitude  during 
the  course  of  the  other  tests,  it  may  take  place  at  some  other  time 
on  an  aerodrome.  No  test  to  be  made  with  passenger. 

Departure  and  arrival  for  each  test  is  established  by  officials  of 
the  civil  or  military  authorities  at  the  places  concerned. 

The  theoretical  examination  consists  of  reading  maps,  meteorology, 
principles,  barometric  pressure,  temperature,  hygrometric  conditions, 
clouds,  wind,  reading  meteorological  maps,  making  use  of  meteoro- 
logical information,  the  resistance  of  the  air  and  its  laws,  the  laws 
of  air  resistance  applied  to  aviation,  construction  of  aeroplanes,  tests 
of  acceptance  of  aeroplanes,  regulating  of  aeroplanes,  internal-com- 
bustion motors,  carbureters,  accessory  organs,  and  description,  use, 
and  regulation  of  aviation  motors. 

Candidates  who  already  have  the  pilot's  certificate  of  the  Aero 
Club  and  who  have  to  their  credit  performances  of  public  notoriety, 
superior  in  number  and  quality  to  the  above,  may,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  board,  be  granted  the  military  pilot's  certificate. 

In  March,  1914,  instructions  were  issued  stating  that  the  aero- 
static corps  was  no  longer  able  to  furnish  from  its  personnel  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  officers  and  noncommissioned  officers  for  the  manipu- 
lation of  airships,  and  applications  were  called  for  from  officers  and 
sergeants  of  all  branches  of  the  service  to  undergo  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion. These  courses  of  instruction  were  divided  into  three  periods; 
the  first  contemplated  service  with  a  unit,  the  second  would  include 
a  course  of  lectures,  practical  instructions,  etc.,  while  during  the  third 


164  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

period  those  pursuing  the  course  would  return  to  their  original  units 
and  participate  in  flights  until  they  were  able  to  qualify. 

Prices  were  obtained  from  various  firms  in  France  for  furnishing 
the  transportation  for  an  aeroplane  squadron  organized  similarly  to 
the  French  squadron.  The  offers  ranged  from  $30,000  to  $60,000  per 
squadron. 

Reports  from  observers  since  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war  indi- 
cate that  the  importance  of  aircraft  in  active  operation  has  not  been 
exaggerated.  Their  use  as  scouts  for  the  location  of  artillery  posi- 
tions and  for  the  observation  of  fire  have  been  of  the  utmost  import- 
ance and  have  produced  most  valuable  results.  The  bomb-dropping 
phase  has  not  so  far  apparently  been  of  any  considerable  value. 

The  French  are  now  equipping  their  aeroplanes  with  machine 
guns  and  with  radio  apparatus  that  is  run  by  a  storage  battery.  Un- 
doubtedly they  are  also  installing  bomb-dropping  devices  on  them  as 
are  the  Germans. 

It  appears  that  the  type  of  machine  supplied  to  the  French  Army 
before. the  present  war  has  proven  to  be  practically  valueless.  The 
characteristics  insisted  upon  at  present  are  speed,  field  of  view,  and 
protection.  Unless  a  plane  can  reach  a  speed  of  from  75  to  80  miles 
per  hour  it  is  not  considered  a  desirable  type.  The  Farman,  Moisant, 
and  Caudron  biplanes,  and  the  Morane  Saulnier  monoplane  are  the 
only  types  now  used  by  the  French.  It  is  reported  that  the  Gnome 
motors  are  not  giving  satisfaction.  . 

Captive  balloons  are  being  used  by  the  aviation  corps  along  the 
French  front. 

The  order  which  gives  the  organization  of  the  French  aerostatic 
service,  with  the  exception  of  the  changes  noted  above,  follows : 

Order  relative  to  the  organization  of  the  military  aeronautic  service  in  the 

French  army. 

The  minister  of  war  has  signed  under  date  of  April  16,  the  order  below,  which 
is  an  exposition  of  the  law  of  March  29,  1912,  for  the  purpose  of  its  application : 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  AERONAUTICAL  SEKVICE. 

ARTICLE  1.  In  the  terms  of  article  2,  law  of  March  29,  1912,  the  air  service 
comprises  a  navigating  personnel,  troops,  and  establishments. 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  165 

AKT.  2.  The  navigating  personnel  includes  an  instructed  personnel  (pilots  of 
dirgibles,  holding  certificates  of  such,  mechanicians,  with  certificates  of  mech- 
anicians of  dirigibles,  air-plane  pilots  with  certificates  of  military  aviators)  ; 
an  uninstructed  personnel  (student-pilots  of  dirigibles  and  air  planes,  student- 
mechanicians  of  dirigibles).  Officers  and  men  of  the  navigating  personnel  are 
attached  to  units  or  establishments ;  they  will  participate,  outside  of  the  aerial 
service,  in  the  duties  of  these  units  or  establishments. 

ART.  3.  Aeronautical  troops  include  companies  and  sections.  In  principle, 
the  companies  are  assigned  to  aerostation  and  the  sections  to  aviation.  Each 
aeronautical  company  assigned  to  aerostation  assures  the  service  of  the  home 
port ;  it  is  charged  with  the  operation  of  the  balloons  of  the  home  port  (spherical 
and  dirigible),  with  the  upkeep  of  the  aeronautical  materiel  stored  there  and 
the  handling  of  dirgibles  touching  there. 

The  company  attends  to  the  instruction  of  its  personnel  with  the  exception 
of  certain  specialists  who  can  be  brought  together  for  certain  periods  of  instruc- 
tion at  an  establishment  designated  for  this  purpose. 

The  crews  of  dirigibles  (pilots  and  mechanicians,  as  also  the  student-pilots 
and  student-mechanicians)  are  assigned  to  the  aerostation  company  serving 
the  home  port.  They  are  supplementary  to  the  regulation  strength  of  this 
company. 

The  commanding  officer  cares  for  the  materiel  entrusted  to  him,  with  the  aid 
of  his  crew  and  the  personnel  furnished  by  the  aerostation  company,  according 
to  the  orders  of  the  commandant  of  the  home  port. 

Each  aviation  section  is  divided,  for  the  purposes  of  discipline,  interior  service, 
and  instruction,  into  flotillas.  It  attends  to  the  instruction  of  its  personnel, 
with  the  exception  of  certain  specialists  to  be  assembled  for  courses  of  instruc- 
tion at  an  establishment  named  for  the  purpose.  The  section  is  charged  with 
the  maintenance  of  the  materiel  and  its  keeping. 

Detachments  and,  as  the  case  may  be,  aeronautical  units  are  assigned  for  the 
service  of  establishments. 

ART.  4.  The  establishments  are  made  up  of  the  schools,  the  special  establish- 
ments, the  administrative  branches,  the  depots,  and  workshops. 

1.  The  schools  are  intended  for  the  formation  of  the  navigating  personnel  and 
specialists.     Each  school  has  a  cadre  of  officers,  noncommissioned  officers,  and 
students;  it  has  an  aeronautic  section.     The  schools  act  as  depots  and  have 
workshops  for  this  reason. 

2.  The  special  schools  are  in  charge  of  construction  and  they  purchase  the 
material,  the  execution  of  certain  repairs,  and  the  study  of  everything  relating 
to  aeronautics.     They  comprise  the  administration  of  the  military  aeronautical 
materiel  under  which  are  the  central  establishment  of  the  military  aeronautical 
matSriel  and  the  military  aeronautical  laboratories. 

3.  The  administrative  bureaus  (at  the  rate  of  one  for  each  army  corps  where 
there  are  one  or  more  aeronautical  establishments)  direct  the  supervision  of  the 
aeronautical  materiel. 


166  THE   SERVICE    OF  INFORMATION. 

4.  The  depots  with  workshops  attend  to  the  distribution  and  upkeep  of  the 
materiel  in  use  and  in  reserve. 

Each  establishment  has  a  personnel  of  its  own  attached  to  it,  the  strength  of 
which  is  determined  by  the  minister  of  war. 

GEOUPING  OF  ORGANIZATIONS. 

ART.  5.  The  assembling  of  one  or  more  units  with  the  depot  operating  near 
them  is  called  home  port,  as  it  relates  to  aerostation;  center  of  aviation  as  it 
concerns  aviation. 

The  home  stations  consists  of  the  crew  of  dirigibles,  a  company  of  aerostation 
troops,  a  materiel  depot,  and  workshop.  The  command  of  a  home  port  is  exer- 
cised by  one  of  the  officers  attached  to  said  station  in  time  of  peace  and 
detailed  by  the  minister  of  war. 

The  center  of  aviation  is  composed  of  one  or  more  aviation  sections;  a 
materiel  depot  with  workshop.  The  command  of  a  center  of  aviation  is  per- 
formed by  the  chief  of  section,  when  the  center  allows  but  one  section,  and  in 
the  case  of  several,  by  an  officer  of  the  aviation  service  designated  by  the 
minister  of  war  and  distinct  from  the  chief  of  section. 

ART.  6.  When  a  home  station  and  a  center  of  aviation  are  at  the  same  place 
they  are  placed  under  the  orders  of  a  field  officer  of  the  aeronautic  service.  In 
such  a  case  there  is  but  a  depot  with  a  workshop.  The  workshops  can  be  dis- 
tinct for  aerostation  and  aviation. 

In  the  case  of  an  isolated  home  port  or  center  of  aviation  the  commanding 
officer  fulfills  the  functions  of  chief  of  the  aeronautical  service.  In  all  cases 
the  chief  of  the  aeronautical  service  exercises  the  function  of  chief  of  depot. 

ART.  7.  The  home  stations,  centers  of  aviation,  schools,  and  special  establish- 
ments of  the  mother  country  and  North  Africa  are  served  by  units  apportioned 
according  to  decree  of  August  22,  1912,  into  three  groups  forming  corps  (regi- 
ments), and  each  placed  under  the  order  of  a  colonel  or  lieutenant  colonel. 

Each  one  of  the  groups  constitutes  the  organizations  existing  or  to  be  created  * 
in  the  territories  of  the  army  corps  indicated  below : 

First  group  (central  portion  of  Versailles)  :  Military  government  of  Paris, 
8,  4,  5,  9,  10,  11,  and  20,  regions,  North  Africa. 

Second  group  (central  portion  at  Reims)  :  1,  2,  and  6,  regions. 

Third  group  (central  portion  at  Lyons)  :  7,  8,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  and  18, 
regions. 

HIGHER   COMMAND   AND   INSPECTION   OF   MIITARY   AERONAUTICS. 

ART.  8.  Aeronautical  organizations  are  placed  under  the  authority  of  military 
governors  or  army  corps  commanders  in  whose  territory  they  are  stationed. 

1  The  detailed  table  of  the  composition  of  the  groups  will  not  be  established  until  after 
the  fixation  by  decree  of  the  number  of  sections  to  be  created  in  1913,  by  application  of 
article  4  of  the  law  of  Mar.  29,  1912. 


THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION.  167 

Army  commanders  exercise  directly  their  authority  as  concerns  the  general 
discipline,  the  exterior  service,  the  measures  of  public  order,  and  the  tactical 
instruction  of  officers  and  units,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  special  ministerial  in- 
structions. They  give  their  orders  through  the  group  commanders  relative  to 
the  interior  discipline,  the  personnel,  administration  of  the  units,  and  mobiliza- 
tion, and  through  the  directors  for  the  management  of  the  technical  materiel, 
as  is  indicated  in  article  10  below. 

They  can  prescribe  expenditures  only  within  the  limits  of  the  credits  passed 
on  by  the  minister  and  for  the  purpose  for  which  these  credits  are  intended. 

They  solely  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  special  establishments  and 
schools  in  the  terms  indicated  in  the  instruction  on  the  daily  routine  service 
(arts.  9  and  10). 

Governors  of  fortified  places  have,  under  the  authority  of  army  corps  com- 
manders, the  same  powers  as  the  general  officers  as  they  pertain  to  the  special 
organizations  assigned  for  the  defense  of  the  place. 

ART.  9.  The  permanent  inspector  of  military  aeronautics  is  to:  (a)  Inspect 
the  technical  personnel  and  materiel  of  military  aeronautics  and  to  rate  the 
personnel.  (&)  To  direct  the  formation  of  the  navigating  personnel  and  the 
technical  instruction  of  the  entire  personnel,  (c)  Exercise  command  of  schools 
and  special  establishments,  organs  which  are  directly  under  his  orders. 

As  technical  inspector  he  effects  all  useful  changes  for  his  mission ;  however, 
the  changes  for  North  Africa  are  authorized  by  the  minister.  He  informs 
organizations  through  the  corps  commanders  of  the  dates  and  programs  of  his 
inspections ;  in  the  case  of  an  unlocked  for  inspection  he  conforms  to  the  regin 
lations  of  routine  garrison  duty.* 

Corps  commanders  will  give  such  orders  as  will  enable  him  to  have  the 
personnel,  materiel,  and  documents  necessary  for  the  fulfillment  of  his  duties, 

As  concerns  the  formation  of  the  navigating  personnel  and  the  technical 
instruction  of  the  whole  personnel,  he  prepares  and  submits  for  approval  by 
the  minister  all  necessary  regulations  and  instructions;  he  gives  all  orders  of 
detail  for  their  application.  He  sends  always  to  the  corps  commanders  a  copy 
of  the  orders  or  technical  instructions  given  to  the  personnel  placed  under  their 
command ;  he  forwards  to  the  minister  all  propositions  suitable  on  the  subject 
of  assignment  and  distribution  of  instructors  and  students;  he  sees  that  the 
students  who  do  not  present  the  required  aptitude  be  returned  to  their  troops 
as  soon  as  their  unfitness  has  been  established ;  and  transmits  to  the  minister 
his  plans  for  arranging  the  courses  of  study,  as  provided  for  in  article  3,  and 
for  the  assignment  of  the  personnel  that  is  to  participate. 

As  head  of  the  schools  he  issues  his  orders  directly  to  the  commanders  of 
each  one  of  them.  As  superior  of  the  special  establishments  he  communicates 
his  instructions  directly  to  the  director  of  aeronautical  materiel. 

He  corresponds  directly  with  the  minister  (military  aeronautic  section), 
safeguarding  the  general  powers  of  military  governors  and  corps  commanders 


168  1HE    SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

as  indicated  in  article  8.    It  is  obligatory  to  consult  him  for  the  use  of  budgetary 
means. 

OliGANIZATION  AND  OPERATION  OF  GROUPS  AND  DEPOTS. 

ABT.  10.  The  commanding  officer  of  the  group  is  at  the  same  time  colonel  and 
director.  As  colonel  he  is  invested,  in  relation  to  troops  under  his  orders  and 
detached  personnel  or  supernumerary,  with  rights  and  prerogatives  attached 
to  these  functions,  such  as  are  denned  in  Title  I,  of  decree  of  May  25,  1910, 
containing  regulations  on  the  interior  service  of  regiments. 

As  director  he  performs  his  duties  distinctly  for  each  of  the  administrative 
branches  existing  in  the  army  corps  in  the  territories  of  which  the  units  of  his 
groups  are  stationed. 

The  personnel,  in  a  subordinate  capacity,  of  the  administrative  subdivisions 
include,  at  the  actual  residence  of  the  director,  an  officer  of  administration,  an 
assistant,  and  the  number  of  civil  employees  and  military  clerks  necessary. 

In  the  bureaus  where  the  director  does  not  reside  the  bookkeeping  is  attended 
to  by  one  of  the  administrative  officers  of  the  aeronautical  service  employed  in 
the  place  chosen  as  seat  of  the  administration,  or  by  an  administrative  officer 
specially  designated,  if  the  importance  of  the  service  demands  it. 

The  group  commander  can  undertake  journeys  to  the  extent  of  his  command 
whenever  he  thinks  it  opportune  for  the  inspection  of  troops  and  establishments 
under  his  orders.  However,  without  special  orders  of  the  minister  or  the 
respective  corps  commander,  his  journeys  of  more  than  150  kilometers  (going 
and  coming)  are  limited  to  eight  per  year  and  place;  except  in  an  urgent  case, 
they  are  the  object  of  a  previous  report. 

With  reference  to  north  Africa,  the  journeys  of  the  commandant  of  the  first 
group  are  authorized  by  the  minister. 

.  ABT.  11.  The  chief  of  the  aeronautical  service  in  a  place  transmits  the  orders 
and  makes  sure  of  their  execution ;  he  is  responsible  for  the  discipline,  the  admin- 
istration, mobilization,  and  the  observation  of  diverse  general  rules  relative 
to  the  service  and  the  progress  of  instruction.  As  concerns  the  interior  service, 
he  has  the  powers  of  a  chief  of  detachment;  for  the  administration  of  the 
materiel,  he  exercises,  as  has  been  stated  in  Article  6,  the  functions  of  chief 
of  depot. 

ABT.  12.  Depots  and  shops. — Depots  under  the  authority  of  directors  are 
charged : 

1.  With  the  care  of  the  materiel  and  supplies  stored  in  the  place  where  they 
are. 

2.  To  assemble  all  expendable  materiel  necessary  for  instruction  and  to  pur- 
chase certain  objects  of  routine  service. 

3.  To  regulate  the  expenses  in  connection  with  purchases  or  repairs  or  for 
instruction. 

The  depots  execute  repairs  to  apparatus  outside  of  those  which  can  be  made 
tn  the  units  and  those  requiring  an  equipment  or  special  workmen  and  must  be 


THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  169 

intrusted  to  special  establishments  or  constructors.  They  will  comply,  with 
respect  to  the  latter,  with  the  instructions  of  the  minister. 

The  personnel  attached  to  the  depot,  under  the  orders  of  the  chief  of  the  aero- 
nautical service — chief  of  depot — includes  one  or  several  officers'  assistants,  one 
or  two  officers  or  administrative  officials,  foremen  or  chief  workmen,  a  civil 
personnel  (skilled  and  unskilled  laborers  and  employees).  The  strength  of  this 
personnel  is  determined  by  the  minister. 

The  chief  of  the  aeronautic  service  fixes  the  number  of  the  noncommissioned 
grade  and  troop  class  which  must  be  furnished  by  the  units  to  perform  the 
depot  service;  from  among  the  whole  of  the  personnel  attached  to  the  depot 
service  are  the  master  workmen  and  operators  of  the  workshops  picked. 

ABT.  12.  Temporarily  and  while  the  instruction  of  the  navigating  personnel 
can  not  be  given  entirely  in  the  military  schools  of  aviation,  the  miltary  per- 
sonnel and  materiel  detailed  to  a  civil  school  are  attached  again  to  a  military 
school  designated  by  the  minister. 

When  the  materiel  is  stored  outside  of  the  aeronautic  troops  station  it  is 
managed  by  a  depot  assigned  by  the  minister. 

SPECIAL  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

ART.  14.  Special  establishments  operate  in  conformity  with  special  regulations 
and  instructions  concerning  them ;  the  composition  of  their  cadre  is  determined 
by  the  table  below.  The  troop  personnel  is  furnished  them  by  the  units  desig- 
nated for  taking  care  of  the  service. 

ABT.  15.  Decree  of  August  22,  1912,  relative  to  organization  and  apportionment 
of  military  aeronautic  groups  and  establishments  is  abrogated. 

Table  showing  composition  of  cadres  in  special  establishments. 

Administration  of  military  aeronautics  materiel :  1  colonel  or  lieutenant 
colonel,  1  captain  or  lieutenant,  1  administrative  official,  1  assistant  adminis- 
trative official. 

Central  establishment  of  military  aeronautic  materiel:  1  superior  officer,  6 
captains  or  lieutenants  (plus  an  additional  number  of  aviator  officers  or  pilots 
of  dirigibles),  4  administrative  offiicals,  2  assistant  administrative  officials,  2 
foremen  or  chief  workmen. 

Laboratory :  3  superior  officers  or  captains,  9  lieutenants  or  sublieutenants 
(plus  a  certain  number  of  officers  as  above),  6  administrative  officers,  4  assist- 
ants, 5  skilled  mechanics. 

GERMANY. 

The  Naval  Annual  (for  1914)  states  that  the  German  army  at 
that  time  had  9  battle  airships,  and  2  more  were  available,  privately 
owned  but  subsidized.  The  navy  had  1,  with  another  hired,  and  2 


170  THE   SERVICE    OF  INFORMATION. 

building.  Five  mine-laying  and  scout  airships  were  in  the  hands  of 
the  army  and  1  building  for  the  navy. 

There  were  at  that  time  about  8  sheds  in  Germany  capable  of  hold- 
ing the  new  model  32-ton  ships  and  13  capable  of  holding  the  22- 
ton  ships,  with  a  total  of  32  sheds  built  and  4  building  in  various 
parts  of  the  countr}7.  The  new  type  of  sheds  adopted  for  the  hous- 
ing of  aircraft  cost  70,000  marks.  Sea-plane  stations  were  established 
at  Putzig,  Kiel,  Wilhelmshaven,  and  Heligoland. 

There  were  about  500  aeroplanes  of  all  descriptions  in  Germany  in 
1914.  The  sea  planes  used  were  the  Albatross,  Euler,  Avro,  and 
some  other  types. 

The  aeroplane  sections  of  the  German  army  are  organized  as 
complete  units.  Each  army  corps  has  its  section  and  each  army  one 
or  two  sections.  A  section  normally  consists  of  six  machines,  each 
machine  having  two  officers — an  observer  and  an  operator — with  a 
chief  of  section  in  charge.  The  fliers  are  generally  lieutenants, 
while  the  chiefs  of  the  detachments  are  captains.  About  6  noncom- 
missioned officers  and  100  men  are  assigned  to  each  section.  From 
7  to  12  trucks  are  provided  for  carrying  the  spare  parts,  supplies, 
workshop,  baggage,  etc.  Reports  from  the  observers  indicate  that 
automobiles  are  furnished  for  the  transportation  of  the  personnel, 
but  the  aeroplanes  themselves,  as  a  rule,  fly  to  their  destination. 
There  is  one  type,  however,  with  folding  wings,  that  by  the  insertion 
of  a  forward  axle  and  wheels  can  be  attached  to  a  motor  truck  and 
pulled  along  the  road. 

A  report  from  the  eastern  front  states  that  an  inspection  of  a  sec- 
tion showed  that  one  machine  was  a  light  single-decker,  built  for 
speed,  for  reconnoitering,  and  the  remaining  machines  were  of  the 
double-deck  type,  designed  to  have  a  certain  weight-carrying  capac- 
ity. The  single-deck  type  seen  was  a  Fokkor  machine  with  a  Gnome 
revolving  engine.  The  double-deckers  had  Mercedes  engines.  The 
offensive  weapons  carried  by  the  machines  were  steel  darts  and  high- 
explosive  bombs.  The  steel  darts  are  issued  in  packages  of  50,  and, 
as  a  rule,  are  thrown  out  a  pack  at  a  time.  There  are  several  sizes  of 
high-explosive  bombs  furnished,  the  largest  weighing  15  kilograms. 
The  heavier  types  are  carried  suspended  from  the  body  of  the  aero- 


THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION.  171 

plane  and  released  by  a  trigger.  The  aeroplane  has  four  attach- 
ments for  carrying  bombs.  The  lighter  bombs  are  carried  in  the  body 
of  the  machine. 

Reports  indicate  that  the  bombs  are  pear-shaped,  and  fixed  with  a 
propeller  attachment  that  arms  the  fuse  after  a  certain  number  of 
revolutions. 

A  study  of  the  reports  at  hand  indicates  that  the  Germans  have 
made  strenuous  efforts  to  place  large  numbers  of  aircraft  in  the  field, 
and  that  owing  to  the  conditions  existing  it  has  been  impossible  to 
equip  each  section  exactly  alike.  Nor  is  it  at  all  probable  that  the 
supply  of  aircraft  is  limited  to  army  corps,  where  circumstances  ap- 
pear to  warrant  the  advisability  of  other  assignments. 

The  following  contains  the  latest  detailed  information  on  the  sub- 
ject up  to  January,  1915 : 

My  previous  reports  on  German  aviation  show  what  a  high  state  of  develop- 
ment it  has  reached.  No  one  knows  or  no  one  will  say  how  many  aviators  they 
have,  but  there  are  evidently  75  or  more  detachments,  or,  as  they  call  them, 
Abteilungen.  Two  months  ago  I  was  told  there  were  over  50  such  detach- 
ments, but  there  now  must  be  over  100,  as  it  is  probable  that  Germany  has 
about  90  army  corps.  There  are  60  army  corps  of  which  I  have  been  able  to 
get  track,  and  there  are  many  more  in  process  of  training.  The  highest  number 
that  I  noticed  on  the  sleeves  of  such  detachments  as  I  have  seen  was  29. 

As  the  flyers  can  work  within  a  radius  of  100  miles,  it  is  not  necessary  for 
them  to  be  immediately  up  in  the  front,  and  therefore  they  frequently  occupy 
very  good  quarters  many  miles  in  the  rear  of  the  lines,  where  they  are  con- 
nected by  telephone  with  the  army  headquarters.  In  fact,  so  good  is  the  line 
of  telephone  communication  now  that  all  of  the  infantry  and  artillery,  com- 
panies, batteries,  squadrons — everyone  is  connected  by  telephone  and  informa* 
tion  can  be  transmitted  immediately. 

A  Flieger  Abteilung,  or  detachment,  consists  as  a  rule  of  6  flyers,  with  the 
necessary  machines  and  spare  parts — usually  7  machines  in  each  Abteilung,  with 
the  extra  parts  in  the  hangars.  There  are  also  observers  with  each  Abteilung, 
and  the  latter  is  commanded  by,  I  think,  a  captain,  who  is  generally  a  flyer. 
As  seen  by  the  late  organization  tables  of  the  German  Army,  the  flyers  are 
divided  up  into  battalions.  While  on  a  visit  recently  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
second  army  met  there  a  major  of  the  flying  corps,  who  was  in  command  of  all 
of  the  flyers  of  that  army,  and  perhaps  more.  He  had  a  few  days  before  made 
a  flight  over  Amiens  with  10  aeroplanes.  They  had  been  able  to  drop  a  number 
of  bombs  on  the  town,  trying  to  put  the  gas  works  out  of  commission,  and  they 
were  then  awaiting  with  some  interest  the  French  reports  as  to  the  result  of 
their  flight 


172  THE   SERVICE   OF  INFORMATION. 

There  are  some  14  motor  trucks  to  each  Abteilung  for  the  carriage  of  the 
aeroplanes,  benzine  wagon,  repair  wagon,  two — now  generally  three — automo- 
biles for  the  use  of  the  officers  and  one  or  two  automobile  busses  for  the  en- 
listed personnel.  In  this  case  an  autobus  had  been  arranged  as  an  office  and 
resembled  a  good  deal  an  officer's  room  aboard  ship,  as  it  was  fitted  with  every 
convenience  improvised,  including  maps,  map  cases,  tables,  telephone,  lavatory, 
stove,  and  both  electric  lights  and  oil  lamps.  Each  Abteilung  has  all  of  its 
machines  from  the  same  factory,  and  the  factory  thus  becomes  the  base  of 
that  detachment  and  supplies  direct  or  through  advance  bases  all  of  the  extra 
parts  needed.  This  Abteilung  had  the  usual  cartridges  for  the  firework  signals, 
red,  blue,  white,  and  other  lights  which  when  fired  look  like  so  many  stars  and 
are  fired  from  a  kind  of  pistol.  They  also  had  the  photograph  apparatus,  de- 
scriptions of  which  have  been  forwarded,  which  has  a  pistol  grip  and  photo- 
graph is  taken  in  the  same  manner  that  a  pistol  is  fired.  The  photographs 
that  have  been  taken  during  the  war  are  excellent  and  have  been  of  great 
value.  The  detachment  also  had  the  various  kinds  of  bombs  which  I  have 
described  in  previous  reports.  They  also  had  the  bomb-dropping  apparatus, 
though  most  of  the  bombs  were  dropped  by  hand. 

I  was  struck  by  seeing  a  detachment  of  enlisted  men  belonging  to  an  Ab- 
teilung and  quartered  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  their  hangars 
marching  the  distance  in  as  orderly  a  manner  as  guards  through  the  streets 
of  Berlin.  This  is  only  indicative  of  the  absolute  good  order  that  is  kept  by 
the  German  Army  everywhere  in  the  field ;  one  never  sees  any  slouchiness  about 
the  way  in  which  they  perform  their  military  duties.  One  becomes  convinced 
that  this  precision,  eagerness,  and  orderliness  of  doing  things  in  war  exactly 
as  they  are  done  in  peace,  with  the  same  precision  as  the  drill  of  the  West  Point 
-Cadets,  is  a  very  good  thing  for  the  proper  training  of  a  nation  which  goes  to 
war  as  a  nation  where  every  man  of  suitable  age  is  a  soldier. 

It  is  claimed  that  some  50  Zeppelins  are  being  built  and  that  airship  halls  are 
being  constructed  through  Belgium  for  their  accommodation.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  large  numbers  of  heavier  aeroplanes  are  being  constructed. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  many  of  the  expert  pilots  wanted  to  go  to  the  front. 
The  pilot  instructors,  however,  were  kept  on  duty  at  the  various  manufactories 
and  aerodromes,  where  they  have  been  continuously  instructing  new  flyers.  I  am 
told  that  comparatively  few  of  the  flyers  have  been  lost.  Members  of  a  number 
of  detachments  have  told  me  that  they  had  lost  none.  The  commander  of  an- 
other detachment  told  one  of  my  companions  that  he  had  none  of  his  original 
flyers  with  him  now,  but  I  don't  know  whether  they  were  all  lost  or  had  been 
transferred  to  other  detachments. 

The  following  is  the  method  described  to  me  by  a  major  of  artillery  who  has  a 
group  of  batteries  in  the  garde  corps  as  to  the  use  that  he  has  lately  made  of  the 
aeroplanes :  Knowing  that  so  many  aviators  were  assigned  to  his  brigade  or 
^division,  he  would  ask  for  one  or  more  of  them  to  be  placed  under  his  orders  for 


THE    SEEVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  173 

certain  work ;  the  flyer  or  flyers  would  come  to  him  in  his  place  of  observation, 
generally  a  dugout  up  in  advance  of  the  batteries,  and  there  he  would  very  care- 
fully explain  to  the  aviator  a  system  of  signals  so  that  he  would  know  exactly 
what  the  aviator  saw ;  he  said  that  these  signals  would,  as  a  rule,  consist  of  a 
turn  by  the  aviator  to  one  side  or  the  other,  his  circling  in  a  certain  manner,  a 
figure  8,  etc. ;  after  giving  his  instructions  and  agreeing  upon  the  signals,  the 
latter  would  be  written  down  in  duplicate,  he  retaining  one  copy  and  the  aviator 
taking  the  other ;  the  aviator  would  then  at  once  proceed  to  carry  out  the  in- 
structions, which  generally  related  to  the  detection  of  some  position  of  the  enemy, 
such  as  that  of  the  hostile  artillery  or  as  to  where  his  own  shells  were  dropping. 
By  means  of  the  telephone  the  artillery  major  could  inform  the  infantry  lines  as 
to  what  the  aviator  was  going  to  do.  The  artillery  major  laid  emphasis  upon  the 
one  thing  that  all  German  officers  seem  to  consider  of  the  greatest  importance, 
i.  e.,  that  instructions  should  be  clear,  thoroughly  understood,  as  simple  as  possi- 
ble, and  every  means  taken  to  prevent  their  being  forgotten,  so  that  they  may  be 
carried  out  exactly  as  given. 

The  following  standards  have  been  set  by  the  German  war  office  for 
inspection  and  acceptance  of  aeroplanes: 

The  apparatus  must  be  so  stable  that  it  is  able  to  resist  sudden  squalls  and  that 
the  pilot,  even  during  the  longest  flight,  is  not  exhausted.  When  the  motor  ceases 
to  work  the  apparatus  must  be  able  to  proceed  to.  a  gliding  flight  without  inter- 
ference of  the  crew.  The  carriage  must  possess  guidable  wheels ;  the  steering 
has  to  be  done  by  pedals.  Besides,  there  must  be  two  more  pedals  by  which 
merely  the  horizontal  rudder  can  be  worked.  As  steering  device,  the  military 
system  of  steering  has  to  be  built  into  such  aeroplanes.  The  vertical  lever  works 
the  vertical  rudder,  the  volant  with  chain  wheel  the  transverse  stability.  The 
steering  wheel  must  be  parallel  to  the  pilot. 

Gas  throttle  and  all  levers  in  connection  with  the  motor  must  be  solid  and 
large  and  ha\7e  to  be  adjusted  on  the  right  of  the  pilot's  seat  about  50  centimeters 
in  front  of  the  back  of  the  seat.  All  steering  cables  have  to  consist  of  easily 
flexible,  unextensible  steel-wire  ropes,  the  ends  of  which  have  to  be  spliced  with- 
out being  soldered. 

The  apparatus  has  to  be  built  for  two  persons,  pilot  and  observer.  Their  seats 
have  to  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  the  observer  is  not  at  all  and  the  pilot 
as  little  as  possible  prevented  from  looking  forward  and  sideways,  and  also  down- 
ward, for  the  purpose  of  landing  or  inspecting  the  tension  wires.  (The  appara- 
tus can  also  be  manned  with  two  pilots,  who  relieve  one  another,  and  pilot  and 
observer.)  The  motor  must  not  be  placed  behind  the  pilot  and  observer.  On 
both  seats  elastic  leather  belts  10  centimeters  broad  must  be  fitted  up,  and  it 
must  be  possible  to  untie  it  with  one  grip  of  the  right  or  left  hand,  even  when 
pilot  and  passenger  are  hanging  in  the  straps.  The  seats  must  be  so  arranged 
that  pilot  and  observer  can  be  seated  in  a  position  as  normal  as  possible  and 
that  they  are  protected  from  draft  of  air  as  much  as  is  feasible. 


174  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

It  is  further  demanded  that  the  apparatus  can  be  taken  to  pieces  for  trans- 
portation on  road  within  half  an  hour,  and  after  such  transport  can  be  mounted 
for  use  in  likewise  half  an  hour  by  six  soldiers.  The  taking  to  pieces  has  to  b« 
preceded  by  a  flight,  and  the  mounting  must  also  be  followed  by  a  flight.  It  must 
be  possible  to  transport  the  apparatus  without  the  aid  of  a  vehicle  even  over 
rough  country,  when  it  must  also  be  able  to  pass  through  a  rectangular  opening  of 
2.30  by  3.50  meters. 

The  conditions  for  trial  flights  before  an  apparatus  is  accepted  on  behalf  of 
the  war  office  are  as  follows: 

The  commission  selects  one  apparatus  out  of  a  number  of  aeroplanes  of  the 
same  type  which  has  to  make  a  long-distance  flight  of  450  kilometers  in  an 
average  height  of  500  meters.  The  pilot,  after  flights  of  two  hours  each,  is 
allowed  to  land  and  take  rest,  but  must  not  touch  apparatus  or  motor  during 
the  pause.  The  minimum  weight  of  pilot  and  observer  is  160  kilograms.  If 
this  actual  weight  is  smaller,  the  difference  has  to  be  made  up.  The  length  of 
the  run  before  the  flight  must  not  exceed  60  meters  in  the  case  of  one  occupant, 
and  the  start  is  not  to  be  made  against  the  wind.  One  landing  has  to  be  effected 
by  means  of  a  gliding-down  flight  from  at  least  a  height  of  100  meters,  when 
the  motor  must  be  completely  stopped. 

Another  long-distance  flight  has  to  be  made  with  an  apparatus  selected  by 
the  commission  out  of  a  number  of  aeroplanes  of  the  same  type.  This  flight 
must  last  7  hours,  must  take  place  in  an  average  height  of  50  meters,  and  two 
occupants  of  a  minimum  weight  of  160  kilograms  must  be  in  the  flying  machine. 
Besides,  the  apparatus  must  carry  a  load  of  100  kilograms.  The  run  before  the 
ascent  must  not  exceed  100  meters. 

In  the  third  place  the  speed  is  tested  by  a  flight  at  which  the  apparatus, 
carrying  the  same  weight  as  in  the  7  hours'  flight,  must  fly  in  a  maximum 
height  of  50  meters  along  a  marked  line  of  2  kilometers  twice  to-and-fro.  The 
average  speed  must  be  at  least  80  kilometers. 

A  further  condition  is  that  the  apparatus,  with  the  before-mentioned  weight 
of  260  kilograms,  is  able  in  calm  weather  within  15  minutes  after  the  start  to 
rise  to  a  height  of  1,000  meters. 

Finally,  the  reliability  has  to  be  shown  by  a  flight  of  15  minutes'  duration 
without  passenger  in  a  wind  whose  intensity  is  at  least  15  meters  per  second. 

In  order  to  test  landing  and  ascent  under  unfavorable  conditions,  as  in  the 
field — that  is,  on  or  from  field,  stubble-field  meadow,  pasture  land,  etc.,  and  with- 
in a  narrow  compass,  as  well  as  without  any  assistance — the  commission  se- 
lects a  place  on  which  the  apparatus,  with  the  load  as  above,  has  to  land  and  to 
rise  again. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

The  service  of  aeronautics  in  Austria-Hungary,  while  not  as  well 
developed  and  organized  as  the  service  of  Germany  and  France,  is 


THE   SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  175 

nevertheless  of  importance.  The  service  is  performed  by  the  detach- 
ment of  aeronautics  and  the  detachment  of  fortress  balloons.  The 
detachment  of  aeronautics  is  divided  into  the  commander,  the  de- 
tachment of  instruction,  and  the  technical  detachment.  To  the  lat- 
ter the  gas  factory,  workshops,  and  storehouses  containing  technical 
equipment  are  assigned.  The  commander  of  aeronautics  is  in  com- 
mand of  its  parks. 

The  service  was,  in  1914,  in  a  formative  state  as  to  organization. 
At  that  time,  including  the  4  flying  parks  in  the  navy,  there  were 
14  of  the  parks  in  the  monarchy.  A  ftying  park  consists  of  6  ma- 
chines, 2  of  which  are  for  reserve;  2  wagons  for  each  machine — 1 
wagon  for  body,  engine,  spare  parts,  tools,  etc.,  and  1  for  2  sets  of 
wings,  1  set  being  for  reserve,  spare  parts,  tools,  etc. — 4  automobiles 
for  use  of  the  company;  1  automobile  equipped  for  making  repairs. 
The  personnel  of  the  organization  is  1  officer,  4  observers,  6  pilots, 
and  100  men.  The  wagons  are  drawn  by  horses. 

It  was  the  intention  to  assign  one  of  these  parks  to  each  company. 
Two  battalions,  each  of  four  companies,  with  four  or  five  flying 
parks  per  company,  were  to  be  organized  in  May,  1914,  and  others 
were  to  be  organized  later,  so  that  the  total  would  be  about  38.  This 
reorganization  was  to  be  completed  in  1915. 

In  November,  1913,  the  aeronautic  detachment  was  organized  as 
follows:  A  lieutenant  colonel  in  command;  a  staff;  a  property  divi- 
sion, with  a  major  as  chief;  a  motor-testing  station  and  experimental 
detachment ;  a  balloon  detachment ;  and  a  workshop.  At  Fischamend 
are  two  large  hangars  and  workshops  for  air  craft,  as  well  as  a 
motor  repair  shop  and  a  gas-generating  plant.  It  was  the  intention 
to  erect  barracks  and  quarters  at  this  place  for  the  headquarters  of 
the  aeronautic  detachments  and  attached  departments.  In  1914  there 
were  40  licensed  military  pilots,  4  of  whom  were  noncommissioned 
officers.  At  that  time  there  were  50  noncommissioned  officers  under- 
going instruction  as  pilots,  many  of  whom  would  shortly  become 
available  for  duty. 

Both  line  and  staff  officers  are  employed  as  observers.  It  was 
planned  to  call  for  100  volunteers,  two-thirds  of  whom  would  be 
line  officers  and  one-third  staff  officers,  for  duty  as  observers.  These 


176  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

officers  were  to  be  attached  to  flying  parks  and  accompany  flyers  on 
each  flight. 

At  Fischamend  is  installed  a  central  radio  station  for  use  of  the 
aeronautic  service. 

It  was  the  intention  to  establish  a  meteorological  station  to  furnish 
information  by  radio  to  the  War  Department  for  use  of  air  craft. 
In  furtherance  of  this  project  all  flying  parks  were  to  be  equipped 
with  radio  stations. 

Reorganization  of  the  airship  battalion  contemplated  the  establish- 
ment of  a  staff  at  Fischamend,  and  three  companies,  one  at  Graz,  one 
at  Budapest,  and  the  third  at  Fischamend.  The  company  stationed 
at  Fischamend  was  to  be  the  training  company.  Each  company  was 
to  be  supplied  with  an  airship  of  a  different  type. 

The  following  remarks,  furnished  in  February,  1915,  by  an  observer 
in  Austria,  are  of  interest : 

The  number  of  machines  attached  to  a  flying  park  is  now  8  instead 
of  6. 

One  park  is  supposed  to  be  attached  to  each  corps  headquarters, 
which  would  make  the  total  number  18.  It  is  thought,  however,  that 
only  army  headquarters  are  actually  supplied. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war  there  were  probably  150  aeroplanes 
available. 

Experience  has  shown  that  one  aeroplane  per  park  per  week  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  equipment  up  to  full  strength. 

The  Naval  Annual  (1914)  states  that  Austria  had  3  mine  laying 
or  scouting  airships. 

RUSSIA. 

In  1912  aeronautics  in  the  Russian  Army  were  transferred  from 
the  engineer  department  to  a  newly  formed  aeronautical  section  of 
the  general  staff,  which  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  tech- 
nical equipment  and  the  training  of  the  aviation  corps.  There  is 
also  a  permanent  aeronautical  committee  which  deals  with  this  sub- 
ject. An  aviation  school  has  been  established  in  which  it  is  proposed 
to  train  15  officers  each  year  as  pilots. 

In  1911  the  sum  of  200,000  rubles  was  raised  by  public  subscription 
for  the  promotion  of  aeronautics,  and  it  was  officially  stated  in  the 


THE   SEEVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  177 

press  in  1911  that  the  formation  of  the  flying  sections  of  air  com- 
panies would  be  completed  in  1912.  It  is  not  known  exactly  what 
state  this  reorganization  was  in  at  the  outbreak  of  the  present  war, 
although  it  was  estimated  in  January,  1912,  that  some  170  aeroplanes 
were  then  on  hand,  and  that  by  the  end  of  1912  about  50  civilians 
of  varying  degrees  of  efficiency  and  100  officers  would  be  qualified  as 
pilots. 

On  the  subject  of  aeronautics  in  the  Russian  military  organization 
the  Naval  Annual  (1914)  contains  the  following: 

There  are  no  dirigibles  of  the  battleship  class  as  yet,  but  the  purchase  of  a 
Parseval  type  is  contemplated.  Two  small  ones  are  reported  to  be  building,  in- 
cluding one  of  13  tons  by  the  Baltic  Works,  at  Riga. 

Russia  has  13  scouting  and  mine-laying  airships  and  3  building.  Only  7  of 
them  are  of  sufficient  size  to  be  of  much  use  in  war.  In  view,  however,  of  the 
number  of  sheds  building  and  projected,  it  is  very  possible  that  more  ships  are 
in  existence  or  building.  The  whole  of  Russia  is  a  forbidden  area  to  other  air 
craft,  and  little  information  leaks  out  as  to  progress  made  in  naval  and  mili- 
tary aeronautics.  It  is  reported  that  a  condition  of  the  French  loans  to  Russia 
is  that  she  shall  buy  her  air  craft  in  France,  and  two  23-ton  ships  have  been 
ordered. 

It  is  believed  that  there  are  eight  sheds  in  European  Russia,  all  of  good 
size,  and  most  of  them  double  sheds.  It  is  also  reported  that  two  are  in  course 
of  erection  at  Vladivostok  and  that  two  more  are  projected.  If  this  is  true,  it 
looks  as  though  Russia  did  not  intend  to  be  left  behind  in  the  race  for  the  com- 
mand of  the  air.  She  is  probably  the  third  strongest  air  power,  with  Italy 
fourth  and  Great  Britain  fifth.  Should  Russia  build  airship  stations  4n  north- 
ern Persia,  it  will  give  her  a  great  hold  on  that  part  of  the  world,  and  doubtless 
they  will  be  of  great  value  to  her  in  Mongolia,  where  there  are  no  railways  and 
the  movement  of  troops  is  slow.  Next  to  Great  Britain,  no  country  stands  to 
gain  so  much  by  the  use  of  airships  as  Russia. 

There  are  sea-plane  stations  at  Petrograd,  Reval,  Sevastopol,  and  Cron- 
stadt.  The  Curtiss  type  appears  to  be  the  favorite.  There  are  probably  24 
machines  of  that  type  in  the  country,  besides  a  number  of  machines  of  French 
make.  The  greatest  step  forward  in  the  design  of  heavier-than-air  craft  during 
the  last  year  has  been  made  by  Sikorsky,  a  Russian  designer.  He  has  pro- 
duced a  machine  driven  by  four  independent  100-horsepower  motors,  and  which 
has  carried  as  many  as  16  passengers.  Five  have  been  ordered  for  the  Russian 
admiralty  to  be  fitted  as  sea  planes,  whilst  a  number  have  been  ordered  for  the 
army.  The  other  machines  in  use  by  the  army  are  principally  Nieuports  and 
Farmans. 

14689—15 12 


178  THE   SERVICE    OF   INFORMATION. 

ITALY. 

The  latest  reports  on  the  subject  of  aeronautics  in  Italy,  dated 
January,  1914,  indicates  that  a  reorganization,  begun  some  years 
previous,  was  still  in  progress.  This  organization  consolidated  the 
aeronautical  service  under  a  headquarters  at  the  ministry  of  Avar,  and 
divided  the  service  into  three  divisions,  as  follows:  The  specialisti 
battalion,  the  aviation  battalion,  the  manufacturing  and  experi- 
mental branch. 

The  specialisti  battalion  consists  of  44  officers  and  900  men,  organ- 
ized into  four  mobile  companies;  one  company  of  mechanics;  one 
radio  section ;  one  photographic  section ;  and  one  transport  company. 
This  battalion  is  charged  with  the  details  in  connection  with  the 
balloon  parks,  dirigibles,  searchlights,  radiotelegraphy,  telephone, 
and  telephotography. 

The  aviation  battalion  is  formed  from  two  flying  companies  and 
a  technical  subdivision.  The  flying  companies  are  charged  with  the 
management  of  the  aviation  schools  and  the  supply  of  squadrons  for 
the  army.  The  battalion,  including  the  headquarters,  consists  of  46 
officers  and  300  men.  The  reorganization  calls  for  about  20  squadrons 
of  aeroplanes;  12  of  these  are  presumably  for  the  12  army  corpsv  2 
for  the  cavalry  divisions,  and  6  for  fortresses.  In  1914  there  were  4 
aviation  schools. 

The  manufacturing  and  experimental  branch  is  controlled  by  a 
director — a  lieutenant  colonel  or  major — six  officers  and  four  Civilian 
assistants.  The  company  of  mechanics  from  the  specialisti  battalion 
is  permanently  attached,  both  for  technical  duties  and  for  discipline, 
to  this  branch.  The  branch  has  an  office  and  an  air  dock  for  ex- 
perimental purposes  near  Rome. 

The  organization  of  the  squadron  is  about  as  follows : 

Aeroplanes  (4  for  reserve  for  mobilization  and  3  for  exercises  and  instruc- 
tion)   7 

Commander 1 

Pilot  observers 4 

Observing  officers 4 

Men  _.                                                                                                30 


THE    SERVICE   OF   INFORMATION.  179 

The  personnel  is  transported  by  motor  cars.  There  are  2  auto- 
trucks for  workshop,  stores,  supplies,  etc.,  and  2  motor  tractors  to 
each  squadron. 

There  were  5  dirigibles  assigned  to  the  army — 1  for  experi- 
mental work,  2  for  instruction  purposes,  and  2  apparently  for 
reserve.  Some  of  these  were  fitted  with  a  Clement-Bayard  motor 
and  some  with  Fiat  motors.  These  dirigibles  attain  a  speed  of  65 
kilometers  in  still  air.  Their  radius  of  action  is  stated  to  have  been 
a  height  of  1,000  kilometers. 

The  aeroplanes  used  are  mostly  French — Farman,  Bleriot,  Nieu- 
port,  and  Breguet.  There  are  also  a  few  English  machines.  A 
standard  type  of  machine  had  not  been  adopted,  but  it  is  apparently 
the  intention  to  use  both  monoplanes  and  biplanes. 

The  Italians  have  featured  the  use  of  telephotography  from  air 
craft,  and  have  completed  an  air  map  of  Italy.  Their  work  in  this 
connection  in  Tripoli  has  been  favorably  commented  upon. 

There  are  two  classes  of  aviation  courses  provided  for  officers — one 
which  lasts  a  year  and  one  which  lasts  three  months.  Noncommis- 
sioned officers  are  also  instructed  in  the  three-months'  course. 

The  Naval  Annual  (1914)  states  that  there  are  8  battle  airships 
available  for  the  Italian  army  and  navy,  1  building,  and  3  small 
private  ships.  It  is  also  stated  that  about  150  efficient  aeroplanes 
and  sea  planes  were  on  hand. 

o 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 
or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 

(510)642-6753 
1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing  books 

to  NRLF 
Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4  days 

prior  to  due  date 


DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


\  0  199 


RETURNED 


JUL  0  3  1997 


324716 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


